Written by Risa Mae Q. Paladar

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

The condition that you will read more about in this article is one of the leading causes of death. Hypertension is a disorder in which your blood level increases than conventional values.

Another term for it is high blood pressure or HTN. It is a prevalent ailment in which the blood’s long-term force against the artery walls is high enough. It contributes to heart diseases.

Before going into much detail, you will learn first about what blood pressure is.

It is the exerted force by flowing blood on the walls of one of your body’s primary blood vessels. These are the arteries. BP is its acronym. Readings of BP that are higher than average for consecutive days are the basis for the diagnosis.

How do you measure BP?

There are two crucial components considered. One is the blood quantity that your heart pumps. The other one is defiance to blood flow in your arteries.

When diagnosed with HTN, it indicates that your heart has been working too much harder. It is also a sign that it is pumping more blood than usual, with your arteries becoming narrower than ever. mmHg or millimeters of mercury is the unit of measurement. Two digits represent it.

The top number reflects your systolic pressure. It denotes the tension in your arteries whenever your heart contracts or beats. The bottom number reflects your diastolic pressure. This digit represents the stress in your arteries when your heart relaxes.

BP should be less than 120/80 for it to be normal. You may be at risk when your systolic and diastolic is equal to or greater than 140mmHg and 90mmHg.

Types of Hypertensions

Primary hypertension is when there is no known cause for your condition. It is also known as essential hypertension. Identification happens after a doctor detects that your BP is high. This should be for consecutive visits. Diagnosis occurs when the physician has ruled out all other reasons.

If diagnosed with primary hypertension, you may not experience any symptoms at all. But, there is still a probability that you will experience fatigue and headache at times. It stated that the cause is not definite. Yet, researchers still identified related factors. These include genetics, alcohol intake, smoking, diet, and obesity.

The second significant type is secondary hypertension. Unlike essential hypertension, this type has a known cause. According to researchers, the most common reason for this type is an anomaly in the arteries.

There is a disruption of blood distribution to the kidneys. An underlying severe condition or disease may give rise to this. Examples of these are tumors and cancer.

Symptoms

“Silent killer” is another term for hypertension. It may be present without you experiencing any symptoms. It may be hard to persuade you to take medications, knowing that you may be asymptomatic.

Yet, it is crucial to remember that there can be an early detection for hypertension. This highlights the importance of having regular check-ups. Whenever diagnosed, your doctor will give you medications to control the disease.

While most people may be asymptomatic, you may encounter headaches and dyspnea. These symptoms do not appear until your BP has reached a dangerous level.

What is the main cause of hypertension?

According to research, there are a couple of risk factors that can cause HTN. For primary hypertension, there is no known cause. Your lifestyle, such as gaining weight and consuming much sodium and alcohol, genetics, and certain diseases are the leading causes of secondary hypertension.

Primary Hypertension

As mentioned earlier, there is no known or definite cause for primary HTN. It usually develops over time.

Secondary Hypertension

Causes of secondary hypertension range from a variety of illnesses to drugs, including:

• Obstructive sleep apnea
• Kidney disease
• Adrenal gland tumors
• Thyroid problems
• Certain defects you’re born with (congenital) in blood vessels.
• Certain medications: birth control pills, cold remedies, decongestants, and some prescription drugs
• Illegal drugs, such as cocaine and amphetamines

Risk Factors

There is no certainty that these are causes for hypertension development. But, they can still be threats and could escalate your risk of developing them in your later years.

These are the following:

• Male gender: Men appear to have a more significant chance of acquiring the disease than women.
• Old age: Higher rates of hypertension are prevalent in older people. Along with the risk factors are the primary and usual reasons for HTN diagnosis.

1. Genetics

Some DNA can cause the disease. Although you cannot solve this problem, you must tell your physician if it runs in your family.

2.  Obesity

Several studies have found that those who are obese have higher BP than those who are fit. Greater weight accounts for almost forty percent of all hypertension diagnoses.

3. Too much sodium intake

Excess salt consumption correlates with an increased HTN risk. If you overeat sodium, your body will not excrete fluid, which will raise your BP.

4. Little potassium intake

Potassium plays a significant role in your body. It helps stabilizes the sodium amount in your cells. Thus, the right amount of potassium intake equates to the excellent health of your heart. If not, sodium may build up in your blood.

5. Inactive physical activity/sedentary lifestyle

Having such a lifestyle increases your heart rate. It implies that every time your heart contracts, it has to work harder. Additionally, the force applied to the arteries is also more potent and more complex. It could also lead to obesity or being overweight.

6. Excessive alcohol consumption

In the long run, heavy drinking causes detrimental effects on your heart. There are recommendations on the number of drinks both for men and women to protect your health. Furthermore, excessive alcohol intake may also cause an elevation in your cholesterol levels.

7. Kidney problems

Kidneys also play a crucial role in eliminating harmful toxins and wastes as you urinate. When the kidneys get damaged, they cannot do their job with efficiency. There is a retention of the fluid inside your body. This situation leads to high BP and HTN.

What can happen if you have hypertension?

Because of its ability to keep patients unaware of their state, HTN is often known as the “silent killer.” You may experience symptoms like headache, irregular heart rhythms, fatigue, and others. It may also lead to heart diseases, stroke, kidney disorders, and blindness.

Symptoms

• Nosebleeds
  • Irregular heart rhythm
  • Vision changes
  • Headaches
  • Buzzing in the ears

If the extent of hypertension that you have is more severe, you may also experience the following:

• Nausea
  • Fatigue
  • Anxiety
  • Vomiting
  • Muscle tremors
  • Chest pain

Aside from the various manifestations, it can also cause catastrophic damage to your other organs such as the heart, eyes, kidneys, and brain.

1. Heart Attack and Heart Disease

HTN makes your arteries less flexible which may cause a decrease in the blood and oxygen flow to your heart. This situation leads to heart diseases. Additionally, decreased blood flow may also contribute to the following:

• Heart attack– The blockage of blood supply causes excellent damage to your heart. It is because the oxygen does not also reach the organ. Without adequate oxygen, the cardiac muscle begins to perish. The longer the time there is a restriction of your blood flow, the more damage the heart suffers.
  • Heart failure– It is a disorder in which your heart becomes unable to pump adequate blood and oxygen to your other organs.

2. Chest pain (angina)

• Stroke and brain problems

A stroke occurs when the arteries delivering oxygen and blood to the brain become blocked or rupture. During this, your brain cells may die because they become deprived of oxygen. You may also find yourself having disabilities in your speech and movement.

Another is a brain aneurysm. Your vessels become weak and bulge, forming an aneurysm. If this ruptures, it could be life-threatening.

4.  Kidney disorders

The blood vessels in your kidneys become weak and narrow, preventing the organ from functioning with efficiency.

5.  Loss of vision/blindness

The blood vessels in your eyes become thick, narrow, and torn.

6.  Death

Can hypertension be cured?

It is relevant to understand the difference between cure and treatment. The term “cure” usually refers to a complete recovery of one’s health. Treatment may not mean the absolute eradication of the disease. It only leads to your health’s improvement. HTN has no cure, but there is prevention and treatment.

A chronic illness such as hypertension is an example. Medication and maintaining or switching to a healthy lifestyle can help moderate it. But there is no cure.

Written below is a list of things that you can do and apply in your lives to ward off and mitigate HTN.

• Cutting back on salt or sodium

As adults, you should consume no more than 2 grams of sodium per day. You should check the salt amount of packed goods found on the nutrition labels.

• Eating a balanced diet.

Eat fruits, vegetables, fish, lean meat, and low-fat dairy products in reasonable amounts. You should avoid foods heavy in salt, sugar, or oil on a regular basis.

• Exercising

Do not sit all day. Engage yourselves in physical activities that will allow you to sweat.

• Limiting alcohol consumption

If you must consume alcohol, keep your consumption to the least amount.

• Managing stress

Allow yourself to feel all emotions. Have a sound support system whom you can vent out your sentiments. Meditate and allow yourself to rest every once in a while.

• Avoiding smoking

What food causes hypertension?

You may be conscious of your diet once you identified the effects of hypertension. Table salt, a few condiments and sauces, foods with saturated and trans-fat, fried food, fast food, canned, frozen, and processed foods all cause HTN.

·         Table salt

You may always end up looking for more salt, out of habit, in preparing your snacks and meals. It is important to remember that high salt intake is one of the causes of hypertension. Usage of it should be with much precaution. You may also opt to avoid using it and look for alternatives such as herbs and new spices.

·         Some condiments and sauces

Once you have decided to replace your salt, there is a list of condiments that you should not use as substitutes. These include soy sauce, ketchup, steak sauce, and salad dressing. Because of their high sodium content, it is the case.

·         Foods with saturated and trans fat

Even if you have HTN, you can eat healthy fats, but saturated and trans fats are not among them. Foods with saturated and trans-fat include donuts, ice cream, cakes, and margarine. BP and cholesterol are both affected by foods fried in many oils or meats with a lot of fat. You must consume low-fat dairy foods.

Reduce or cut your red meat in your diet. If you cannot resist eating one, check the labels and select the leanest cuts possible.

·         Fried food

Fried meals are high in saturated fat and sodium. Examples include chickens, French fries, crispy pata, and many more.

·         Fast food

Frozen foods cooked in high-fat oils are common in fast-food restaurants. They’re also salted often. All these increase your risk of having HTN. These include your favorite hamburger, chicken, and fries from Jollibee or McDonalds.

·         Canned, frozen, and processed foods

Most of these contain much salt to preserve the flavor through all the processes. Canned soups are significant examples. Frozen pizzas are on the list too. Sodium levels are high in frozen pizzas with thick crusts and a lot of toppings.

What is the best drink for hypertension?

You have read the foods mentioned above that pose a greater risk for HTN. It is time to turn your eyes to the different drinks that could help ease your HTN. Tomato juice, beet juice, prune juice, skim milk, and tea are the best drinks for HTN.

In this part of the article, you will be learning about the different drinks best for HTN.

·         Tomato Juice

Japanese researchers surveyed in 2019. Findings say that tomato juice helps both your diastolic and systolic pressure. Participants in the study were people with heart disease risk factors.

In the later studies, an average of one cup a day also improves the BP of pregnant women. The same goes for people suffering from stage 1 hypertension.

·         Beet Juice

The juice of both raw and cooked beets can lower BP. This finding was according to a randomized pilot research published in 2016Trusted Source. Raw beet juice had a more significant effect on BP.

·         Prune Juice

A 2010 studyTrusted Source says that prune juice is effective in lowering BP. People who ate one dosage of three prunes each day had lower BP, according to the study. There was a more significant reduction in the systolic blood pressure in people who ate six prunes per day.

·         Skim Milk

Low-fat dairy products can prevent and treat your HTN. Skim milk, belonging to the group, would be another drink best for your condition. A 2011 review concluded that your consumption of low-fat milk yielded a lower risk.

·         Tea

The effect of tea on your condition varies depending on the type. According to a 2014 study, green tea yields a more significant decrease in blood pressure. But, long-term consumption of both green and black tea also had a positive impact.

Does coffee lower blood pressure?

Caffeine is a chemical found in your coffee. There are contradicting studies about the topic. Coffee causes a brief but significant spike in your blood pressure. To some, yes, it lowers BP and poses less risk for hypertension occurrence.

According to some researchers, caffeine can block a hormone. This blocked hormone keeps your arteries open or widened. Others believe that caffeine stimulates your adrenal glands to generate extra adrenaline. A temporary increase in BP is the result. Moreover, caffeine is an example of a vasoconstrictor. It produces the same effect.

Previous studies have produced contradicting results when it comes to this topic.

In a medical review, there is a statement that blood vessels get stiffer as you age. This situation could trigger an elevation in blood pressure. According to the latest research, moderate coffee consumption may help to offset this.

In the same study, older people who consume a moderate amount of coffee have more elastic vessels. This finding is despite having HTN.

According to a 2012 study, caffeine intake has a variable influence on blood pressure. Caffeinated coffee causes a significant increase in BP. This is when compared to decaffeinated coffee.

Increased coffee intake causes a slight reduction in the incidence of hypertension in prospective cohort studies, according to 2017 prospective cohort studies.

Despite all this, there is more research conducted in the present to gain a better and single perspective about the relationship between coffee and your blood pressure.

References:

Coffee consumption and blood pressure. (n.d.) Coffee & Health. https://www.coffeeandhealth.org/topic- overview/coffee-consumption-and-blood-pressure/

11 Foods that increase blood pressure. (n.d.) Durham Nephrology. https://www.durhamnephrology.com/foods-that- increase-blood-pressure/

High blood pressure. (2021, May 18). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure/about.htm

High blood pressure. (2021). Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood- pressure/symptoms-causes/syc-20373410

Hypertension – the preventable and treatable silent killer. (2013, March 1). Centre for Health Protection. https://www.chp.gov.hk/en/features/28272.html#:~:text=Hypertension%20is%20a%20chronic%20disease,fol low%20up%2C%20usually%20for%20life.

Hypertension. (2021, August 25). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news–room/fact- sheets/detail/hypertension

Iliades, C. (2009, November 18). Different types of hypertension. Everyday Health. https://www.everydayhealth.com/hypertension/understanding/types-of-hypertension.aspx

Laino, C. (2010, September 1). Coffee may combat high blood pressure. WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/news/20100901/coffee-may-combat-high-blood- pressure

Lopez-Jimenez,     F.                   (2021,   June 8).     Caffeine: How   does                    it         affect             blood   pressure?      Mayo      Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-pressure/expert-answers/blood-pressure/faq- 20058543#:~:text=How%20does%20caffeine%20affect%20blood,t%20have%20high%20blood%20pressure

Treatment vs. Cure. (n.d.) Merriam Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/treatment-vs-cure- difference#:~:text=Cure%20usually%20refers%20to%20a,the%20complete%20elimination%20of%20diseas e.

Vandergriendt,       C.         (2020,         September          17).  7             Drinks for             lowering            blood           pressure.   Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/drinks-to-lower-blood-pressure

Written by Alexis Marian Balisbis

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

There are 100 trillion cells or more in the human body. These make up tissues, tissues make up organs, and organs make up the organ system. The various functions performed by cells lead to their different shapes and sizes. The female ovum or egg cell is the largest cell in the human body.

Its size is about 120 micrometers (0.0047 in) in diameter and 20 times the size of male sperm, making it visible to the naked eye without the aid of a magnification device. The female ovum is the reproductive cell in the female body. It needs to gather enough nutrients to support a growing embryo after fertilization.

There are approximately 1 million eggs at birth. Moreover, by the time of puberty or menstruation, only 300,000 eggs remain. Usually, females ovulate one egg per month.

What is the smallest cell in the human body?

A cell is the smallest, basic unit of life that controls all the processes of life. Most scientists suggest that the smallest cell in the human body for volume is the male sperm. The reproductive cell of males is the sperm.

A bit smaller than your red blood cell, the sperm head is about 4 micrometers in length and a tail 50 micrometers long. A fertile man may produce between 40 million and 1800 million sperms in total. It will only survive in warm environments; thus, it dies outside the body or when ejaculated.

Which blood cell is smallest in size?

A blood cell is also known as a hematopoietic cell, hemocyte, or hematocyte. The three main types of hemocytes include red blood cell or erythrocyte, white blood cell or leukocyte, and platelet or thrombocyte. The smallest hemocyte in size is the platelets or thrombocytes.

Platelets are minute discs 1 to 4 micrometers in diameter, only about 20% of the diameter of erythrocytes. 150,000 – 350,000 per microliter of blood is the average platelet count. But, they are miniature, so they make up a tiny fraction of the volume. They play a significant role in the repair and regeneration of connective tissue.

• Production:

The production or formation of platelets occurs in the bone marrow from megakaryocytes or the “giant” cell, which are giant hematopoietic cells in the marrow. The thrombopoietin or TPO, a dominant hormone controlling megakaryocyte development, regulates the production.

Megakaryocyte develops into a giant cell that releases over 1,000 platelets per megakaryocyte due to fragmentation. They break up into the minute platelets either in the bone marrow or soon after entering the blood, especially as they squeeze through capillaries.

• Structure:

Platelets are the smallest of the circulating fragments of cells, so they are not actual cells. Their average lifespan is about 5 to 9 days only. The shape of platelets, usually plate-like, may change when a break in the blood vessel stimulates them.

When there is a break in the vessel, they become round and extend long filaments. They look like octopuses with long tentacles reaching out to contact the broken vessel wall or other platelets. Then, platelets form a plug to seal the damaged vessel with the long filaments.

Platelets also contain many structures that are necessary to stop bleeding, such as proteins and granules. Proteins on the surface allow them to stick to breaks in the vessel wall and each other. Like muscle protein, they also allow them to change shape when sticky. Granules secrete other proteins that create a firm plug to seal vessel breaks.

• Function:

Platelets are being pushed out from the center of flowing red fluid to the vessel wall because they are the lightest. They pass along the surface of the vessel lined by cells called the endothelium. Endothelium prevents anything from sticking to it.

The platelets react first to injury. When there is a wound or bruise and a broken endothelial layer, this causes exposure of the tough fibers surrounding a vessel to the liquid flowing blood. The tough fibers attract platelets like a magnet, which stimulates the shape change. They clump onto the fibers, forming blood clots or the initial seal to prevent bleeding.

• Disorders: (You can explore more conditions but the ones mentioned are some of them)

Thrombocytopenia, a term derived from an old name for platelets, “thrombocytes,” is a disorder with low platelet counts. The cause can be due to the failure of the bone marrow to produce the standard number of platelets. Increased platelet destruction may also happen once production finishes and when releasing it into the circulation.

Thrombocythemia is a disorder in which your bone marrow makes too many platelets. Some symptoms may include bleeding, headache, bruises, and bloody stools.

Which blood cell is known as a scavenger?

White blood cells or leukocytes are the fewest of the hemocytes. There are only 5,000 to 10,000 leukocytes per microliter or about 1% of your blood. The several types of leukocytes all connect to immunity and fighting infection. The hemocyte called macrophages, also known as natural scavengers, is a type of leukocyte.

Macrophages, also called granulocytes, are cells in the immune system that belong to the so-called scavenger cells or the phagocyte family. They live in almost all body tissues, such as the liver, brain, small intestine, and skin. They destroy bacteria, stimulate other immune system cells’ action, and remove dead cells.

They are also made in the bone marrow and protect the body against infection. Granulocytes have granules in their cytoplasm. The three classes or subdivisions of Macrophages are:

• Neutrophil

Neutrophils are the most common type and the most many, making up about 50% to 70% of all leukocytes and have a lifespan of 7 hours. The granules are very tiny and light, so they are challenging to see. They are the first line of protection when infection strikes to kill and digest bacteria and fungi.

• Eosinophil

These are less common, making up less than 5% of leukocytes and a lifespan of 8 to 12 days. They damage the cells that make up the cuticle or body wall of larger parasites and cancer cells. The large granules contain digestive enzymes that are effective against parasitic worms in their larval form.

• Basophil

Basophils are the least many and rarely seen, making up less than 1% of all leukocytes and a lifespan of a few hours to a few days. They release heparin which is a substance that inhibits blood clotting, histamine, and other substances that have essential roles in some allergic reactions to help control the immune response or the inflammatory response.

What is the largest blood cell?

The other type of white blood cell is the Agranulocytes that have no distinct granules in their cytoplasm. Examples are lymphocytes and monocytes. The largest blood cell is the monocyte, a leukocyte averaging 15 to 18 micrometers in diameter and making up about 7% of the leukocytes.

In the cytoplasm, large numbers of granules often appear to be more in number near the plasma membrane. The nucleus is big, kidney bean-shaped, and tends to have indenting or folding. Monocytes enter areas of inflamed tissue later than the granulocytes or macrophages.

 Monocytes are capable of motion and are phagocytic (engulfing) cells. They can ingest infectious agents and other large particles. They may help break down bacteria, but they cannot replace the function of neutrophils in the removal and destruction of bacteria.

Production in the bone marrow takes place, then they leave and circulate in the blood. After a few hours, the monocytes enter the tissues, where they develop or mature into macrophages. They have a life span of 3 days which is longer than the life span of many white blood cells.

The other type of agranular leukocyte is the lymphocytes, a part of the immune response to foreign substances in the body. They make up about 28% – 42% of the white cells of the blood. These are much smaller than the three granulocytes. The nucleus is enormous for the size of the cell.

Many lymphocytes are in the spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, and lymphoid tissue of the gastrointestinal tract. The T-lymphocytes act against tumor cells and virus-infected cells, while the B-lymphocytes produce antibodies against possible harmful invaders. Both of these are memory cells that may live for many years.

What blood cells carry oxygen?

Blood is the life-sustaining fluid that circulates through the entire body. It also carries nutrients to the body tissues. The life-sustaining cells that transport oxygen all over the body are the red blood cells or erythrocytes. These are the most many, about 5,000,000 per microliter, making about 40% of your total blood volume.

• Production:

The hormone erythropoietin or EPO manages the production of erythrocytes, which occurs in the bone marrow. With small amounts made by the liver, the kidneys are the leading site for EPO production in response to decreased oxygen delivery, such as anemia and hypoxia or increased levels of androgen hormones.

• Structure:

Disks that are a bit flattened with an indented center or round, biconcave discs are usually the shape of erythrocytes. The microscopic view looks like an orange or red tire with a thin, almost transparent center. They live for about 120 days or four months. Your body makes new erythrocytes to replace the dead or lost ones.

• Function:

The hemoglobin in erythrocytes is a protein that carries oxygen. When hemoglobin picks up oxygen in your lungs, the life-sustaining fluid gets its bright red color. The hemoglobin releases oxygen to the different parts of the body as it travels. Erythrocytes also bring carbon dioxide to the lungs for you to exhale, removing it from your body.

• Illness: (Mentioned below is only one condition, but you can search other types of anemia)

Some causes of these illnesses are diseases, a lack of iron or vitamins in your diet, or inherited from family.

Anemia is a disease in which too few erythrocytes carry enough oxygen all over the body. Pale skin, feeling cold, tiredness, and fast heart rate are some symptoms of anemia. In severe cases, it may cause heart failure. Children with anemia develop slower than other children.

There are many types of anemia, including the most common, iron deficiency anemia. Your body would not make enough hemocytes if you did not have enough iron in your body. Causes may include sudden blood loss, inability to absorb enough iron from food, a low-iron diet, and ongoing chronic fluid loss such as from heavy menstrual periods.

What vitamin helps the body make red blood cells?

The body needs enough erythrocytes to provide oxygen to body tissues. Foods rich in iron and vitamins can aid in maintaining healthy erythrocytes. The vitamin that helps the body erythrocytes is Vitamin B12.

You can get vitamin B12 from eating meat, cheese, eggs, milk, and cereal – usually absorbed by your digestive systems, such as the stomach and intestines.  Supplements containing B12 along with other B vitamins or folate are also available.

Some factors that make it difficult for your soma to absorb enough vitamin B12 include:

• Poor nutrition during pregnancy
• Poor diet in infants
• Eating a strict vegetarian diet
• Alcohol use
• Surgery that removes particular parts of the stomach or small intestine, such as some weight-loss surgeries
• Pernicious anemia happens when the body destroys cells that make intrinsic factor, a protein produced by specialized cells that line the stomach wall.

References:

Extend Fertility. (2017, November 20). Five fascinating egg cell facts. Retrieved from https://extendfertility.com/egg-cell-facts/

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (2021, March 6). Study reveals how egg cells get so big.Retrieved from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/03/210306113142.htm

Byju’s. (n.d.). Name the smallest and largest cell in the body?

Vedantu. (n.d.). Questions & answers. Retrieved from

https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/smallest-blood-cells-are-arbc-bwbc-cplatelets-class-11-biology-cbse-5f7c1286de7d79546eff0c98

George, J. (2015). Platelets on the web. Retrieved from

https://www.ouhsc.edu/platelets/platelets/platelets%20intro.html

Humphrey, J. & Perdue, S. (2020). Immune system: Macrophages. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/science/immune-system/Interferons

University of Rochester Medical Center. (n.d.). What are white blood cells? Retrieved from

https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentID=35&ContentTypeID=160

Conley, L. & Schwartz, R. (2020). Blood: Monocytes. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/science/blood-biochemistry/White-blood-cells-leukocytes#ref62367

Wick, S. (n.d.). Immunology. Retrieved from

https://www2.nau.edu/~fpm/immunology/blood.html

University of Rochester Medical Center. (n.d.). What are red blood cells? Retrieved from

https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentID=34&ContentTypeID=160

The American National Red Cross. (n.d.). Red blood cells and why they are important. Retrieved

from https://www.redcrossblood.org/donate-blood/dlp/red-blood-cells.html#:~:text=Red%20blood%20cells%20carry%20oxygen,our%20lungs%20to%20be%20exhaled.

KidsHealth. (2019). What’s blood? Retrieved from https://kidshealth.org/en/kids/blood.html

MedlinePlus. (2021). Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia. Retrieved from

https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000574.htm

Healthwise. (2020, September 23). Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia. Retrieved from

https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/hw65706

Written by Ian Jay B. Francisco

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

The clinical laboratory is a melting pot of diverse people. As the head of the lab, how will you guide your personnel despite the setbacks? Organizing your resources and staffing will help you deliver quality medical services.

Test results have to be accurate and reliable. Approximately 70% of medical-related decisions rely on these results. Moreover, labs in the United States perform 7-10 billion tests every year.

Any occurrence of inaccurate results leads to significant consequences. Your erroneous test results may increase your patient’s expenses. Unnecessary procedures and complications because of wrong medication are some of these consequences.

The successful delivery of service relies on managerial practices. The workplace environment depends on how you supervise and direct workflow. Communication must also exist within the institution.

Laboratory management aims to provide adequate health services. It involves the integration and coordination of various organizational resources like human resources.

It aims to lead the laboratory staff to carry out their tasks within limited time and supplies. It includes supervising daily operations and training new personnel. It also involves refilling consumables and keeping records of activities.

There are four different types of management:

Planning. A manager can plan to see the lab’s trajectory.

Organizing. As a manager, you select who works on which project and technique. You also supervise the timetables and budgets for various projects. Thus, you must stay up to date with research.

Leading. A manager’s ability to lead is crucial. You determine the lab’s environment and pace. Good leadership may motivate members to be more productive and creative.

Controlling. Being a manager involves assessing the progress of members and projects. You must have the ability to address issues as they arise.

In an alternative sense, lab organization encompasses the physical establishment and operation. The areas may overlap when the facility is small. People that strive to achieve a common goal comprise organizations. These societal units need management to achieve their respective goals.

Generally, a laboratory is like a vehicle. It needs someone to maneuver the institution towards success. It should have a strategy with clear objectives and methods for achieving them. There should be a manager who instructs and ensures the quality of all activities.

What is the importance of laboratory management?

Why is laboratory management critical? How does it influence your laboratory’s trajectory? Lab management may improve service efficiency.

Diagnoses generally depend on laboratory results. The laboratory-diagnostic management process maintains quality while lowering costs. Thus, a lab needs management to function.

The lab must use the most appropriate test methods and equipment for patient care. Management is the process of organizing human and physical resources into functional units. As head, you must achieve your goals while keeping your staff’s morale high.

You have to take note that you have to follow international standards. To ensure the best operation, you need to install quality management systems. Your laboratory accreditation will also help you show competence.

You need to analyze data about your operations and identify ways to improve them. Heads review and audit to track the operation of a laboratory. Yet, not all laboratories have the resources to create these tools.

Cooperation with your healthcare customers is an essential aspect of laboratory operation. This collaboration requires better management to cater to customer feedback. Laboratories check potential nonconformities in their operations and, if necessary, take corrective action.

Competency is the foundation of a high-quality laboratory operation. You should train and educate your employees. Greater emphasis on training planning and effectiveness should be the priority of heads.

Yet, a training plan might not cover all employees. There is still a need for better validation planning, even if you use validated methods.

Laboratories provide all necessary information to healthcare units to guide patients. But one major issue is that patients do not follow these instructions. The need for more collaboration to combat miscommunication is evident.

Healthcare units expect a lot from labs. Such expectations include expert consultation and state-of-the- art examination methods. You can always help your personnel provide quality medical service.

What are the principles of laboratory management?

A curriculum in clinical lab management represents the essence of management. What are its core principles? Lab management involves leadership, behavior, environment, planning, structure, values, communication, and innovation.

Leadership. It’s important to distinguish between management and leadership. Leadership implies influence by example and motivation. It stands alone as a fundamental principle.

Management implies direction by authority and control. It means guidance by power and control, and it is an element of the code of structure.

You can learn and hone the necessary characteristics, skills, and responsibilities for leading. In other words, you do not need to be a “natural leader.” There must also be a distinction between situational (reactive) and anticipative (proactive) leadership.

Behavior. The behavioral principle combines the psychological makeup of individuals and organizations. Considering Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, understanding organizational behavior begins with individual psychology. It is because the organization and its members have similar conditions to succeed.

Environment. It refers to the complex environment in which an organization operates. Understanding paradigm, change, and chaos theory is vital in understanding the external environment. It also needs knowledge on the impact of socio-demographic, political, and economic issues.

You can address the said issues and institutional issues in the internal environment. On a smaller scale, you can focus on new technology and testing methods. Advances in information technology and practice parameters are also environmental changes.

Planning. According to this principle, any firm must enter into some contract with its clients. If “planning is management” is true, then it is a fundamental element.

Unfortunately, long-term planning generally takes a back seat to immediate patient care. In the hectic world of the lab, you must develop a goal and vision based on the demands of your clients.

The secret to successful planning is translating the negotiation process into a process. You need to turn ideal strategies, goals, and objectives into reality.

Structure. Understanding types of organizational configuration and their development is part of this principle. Structure components, intra-organizational and inter-organizational functional relationships exist in the lab. Modes of authority and control, and decision-making define this principle.

Values. This principle covers organizational social beliefs and ethical systems. Everyone must understand human rights, professional ethics, patient rights, and employee rights. It would help if you can give special attention to testing and its impact on the patient.

Communication. It is an organizational matrix that allows data and information to flow. This matrix can contain all forms of distribution, exchange, and learning in the lab. You can see it in computers, electronic and printing devices, and one-on-one communication.

Innovation. It is a management principle for the laboratory dealing with the present and future. It involves changing the way you do things.

It entails the ability to experiment with new approaches, methods, or devices. Innovation will help if you solve existing issues and create new opportunities. It could entail tweaking an existing paradigm or switching to a new one.

The effective interaction of all eight principles will result in high-quality laboratory services. It would be best if you met the interests of all parties involved.

What are the duties of a lab manager?

Being the head of a clinical laboratory is no easy feat. What are your responsibilities as a manager?

Managerial supervision, policy development, and overseeing administrative matters are your duties.

Clinical lab managers are in charge of supervising clinical laboratory scientists and technicians. You are also responsible for devising standard-compliant safety procedures. You also manage budgetary and administrative obligations.

Managers must also oversee the functionality of laboratory equipment. You need to train clinical laboratory staff on how to use the equipment. You must report the lab conditions to a supervisor. Your daily responsibilities are as follows:

You are in charge of managing the laboratory’s day-to-day operations. Keeping in touch with medical directors who supervise you is also your duty. You also need to coordinate the testing processes of many scientists.

The manager needs to check the verification procedures for precision and accuracy. All laboratory equipment must follow safety regulations; you must ensure that. Training and supervision of scientists and workers are part of your job description.

A lab manager identifies and resolves technical issues. You also need to analyze the demands of laboratory settings. Assuring the accuracy and security of patient data is also your job.

It would be best to make sure that your institution implements new techniques. The staffing is also your responsibility. You need to attend workshops to keep your professional knowledge updated. Finally, it would help if you do testing when you are short-staffed.

How do you become a lab manager?

Becoming a manager takes time, skill, and perseverance. How do you become one? You should take a suitable course and get some practical experience if you wish to be a lab manager.

You must have the willingness to understand the science of laboratory medicine. You also may learn management skills. A practitioner like you needs management abilities to enhance your career in leadership.

In the United States, entry-level clinical laboratory technologists need a bachelor’s degree. Some companies may demand managers to have graduate degrees in healthcare administration. You may compensate that one for a science-related graduate degree.

Many management roles need at least five years of experience. Clinical lab managers need to be well- versed in scientific and communication skills.

It would be helpful if you support your staff. You must have a good relationship with accreditation auditors and healthcare leaders. Strict attention to detail is crucial due to the nature of your work.

A manager’s tasks need scientific education, laboratory science expertise, and management skills. It is because your job involves managing sensitive patient information and biological samples.

How do you organize a lab?

Considering all these, how then will you organize your clinical lab? Will you be someone complacent and careless? Keeping things in check is one way of keeping the lab organized.

Before devising a strategy, gather the resources and personnel you’ll need. You need an organizational structure to ensure the implementation of the plan.

Focus your attention on directing your resources to meet your aim and objectives. Once the plan is in motion, it becomes evident that you need to update it always.

The first dimension of the organizational process is the formal organization. These are the job assignments, workgroups, and administrative lines of authority. The second is the social groups and friendships that exist in the organization.

Competent managers use organizations’ official and informal structures and methods. These help them do their goals.

As a lab manager, you must organize a clinical laboratory. It would help if you did this so that staff may collaborate. And when there is collaboration, you can meet institutional objectives.

Lab organization can take several shapes. Time, personnel, and physical space must be in order. A day is inadequate to finish all the tasks you want to complete, so know when to say no.

Lab meetings are an excellent method to keep people on track with their objectives. Meetings with the entire group keep members up to date on what’s going on in the lab. They can also help brainstorm and solve problems.

Top labs have regular meetings, both official and informal. One-on-one sessions are also beneficial for both members and the manager. It is because they allow for a more in-depth discussion of difficulties.

Yet, if lab meetings are not well-organized, they might become a waste of time. A meeting agenda can help you drop the need for repeated sessions to address a single issue. You can also use minutes to track research progress.

References

Clark, G. (1995, November 1). Eight principles of Laboratory Management. OUP Academic. https://academic.oup.com/labmed/article-abstract/26/11/713/2659293?redirectedFrom=PDF.

Conductscience (2019). Fundamentals of lab management. Conduct Science. https://conductscience.com/fundamentals-of-lab-management/.

Drummond, R. (n.d.). Clinical lab manager degrees, certifications & daily duties. mhaonline. https://www.mhaonline.com/faq/what-is-a-clinical-lab- manager#:~:text=Clinical%20lab%20managers%20are%20chiefly,overseeing%20budgetary%20and%20administrati ve%20responsibilities.

von Eiff, W., & Meyer, N. (2007). Laboratory management: The importance of quality and efficiency in patient care. HealthManagement. https://healthmanagement.org/c/hospital/issuearticle/laboratory-management-the- importance-of-quality-and-efficiency-in-patient-care.

Yadav, T. (2015). Laboratory management: The nature of management in the clinical laboratory. SlideShare.

Written by Elisha Kristin Pasco

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Pathophysiology and pathology are essentially the same, except the fields have different scopes. Pathology deals with the disease and how it affects your body. Pathophysiology covers more ground. It studies the cause of illness, how it affects your body, the signs and symptoms, and treatment.

Pathophysiology and pathology are the same, but not quite.

Let us first consider etymology, the study of their origin. Both come from the words pathos and logos.

The word pathos is Greek for suffering. The root logos means discourse, defined as a system of formal studying. Together pathos and logos form the word pathology, the study of discomfort. It is the field in medicine that studies the anomalies in your body caused by disease.

Pathophysiology does not only have pathos and logos in its structure. It also has the Greek word physio, nature. When you add the physio together with logos, you get physiology. It studies how your body usually functions.

Adding pathos to physiology creates a different word, albeit related. It is the study of how a disease works and the changes it makes in your body. It also covers the signs and symptoms that you get and help your doctors provide the best possible care.

What is an example of pathophysiology?

Consider the pathophysiology of aortic regurgitation below. It will show you how the field tackles a disease. Before discussing the disorder, consider the different parts and functions of the organs affected.

Anatomy of the Heart

Your heart is a pumping muscle about the size of your fist. It is behind your breastbone, between your lungs. Its apex points at your left hip, with the wide part directed at your shoulder.

Your heart has four chambers. The left and right atrium receive the blood. The left and right ventricles are in charge of discharging the blood. These four chambers are divided by the septum longitudinally.

 The wall between the left and right chambers is the septum. 

Blood flows in your heart through valves. These are doors that ensure your blood is flowing in only one direction. Your heart has two sets of valves. The atrioventricular valves (AV) are between your atria and ventricles. Another set of valves, the semilunar valves, guard the bases between the largest arteries and the ventricles.

Physiology of the Heart

Whenever the heart beats and contracts, it pumps your blood throughout the body. Your ventricles do most of the pumping. With the atria, it alternates between contracting and relaxing.

The tightening of your heart occurs when it contracts, this is the systole. Diastole happens when your heart is at rest, it is relaxing in this stage.

Ventricular filling occurs when the heart is relaxing. The low pressure makes the blood pour from the atria to the ventricles. During this stage, AV valves are open, and the semilunar valves close. 

The semilunar valves open with the rise in blood pressure during systole. The blood strains into the cusps and pushes the semilunar valves open. It is called the ejection phase.

The ejection phase is a period in your cycle where the heart contracts. The AV valves close, allowing the atria to fill with blood.

Clinical Manifestation

Aortic regurgitation (AR) may present itself as either chronic or acute. 

Chronic regurgitation gives your heart time to adjust to the disorder. Usually, the patients do not have symptoms because their hearts can compensate. 

Symptoms appear only when the heart can no longer deal with the volume overload. It usually presents itself through left-sided failure. It occurs when the left ventricle weakens. It can no longer push enough blood around the body.

Acute AR does not give the heart time to adapt. The observable signs are shortness of breath, fluid in the lungs, and low blood pressure. Cardiovascular collapse may also occur. Your heart goes into shock due to the low pressure, which may lead to an abrupt loss in cardiac function.

Physical examinations of patients with chronic aortic regurgitation present the following signs:

• Hyperdynamic and misplaced pulses or the abnormal rise in circulatory volume

• Three heart murmurs may be present

• A high-pitched early diastolic murmur
• A diastolic rumble called the Austin Flint murmur
• A systolic murmur

• A third heartbeat may be present due to the extra volume of blood in the ventricle.

• The arterial impulse found in the left corner of your chest shifts

Observable signs for chronic aortic regurgitation may not be present during physical examination. The expansion of the left ventricle does not misplace the pulse. The diastolic murmur is softer, and the Austin Flint murmur is short.

Etiology

Acute AR may be due to the following disorders: 

Infective endocarditis is a disorder that affects the walls of your heart. It is due to bacteria entering the bloodstream that may lead to the destruction of the aortic valve.

Chest trauma may cause a tear in the aorta connected to your ventricles. It may disturb the aortic valve causing the blood to backflow.

The cause of chronic aortic regurgitation are as follows:

The bicuspid aortic valve is one of the most common causes of aortic regurgitation. Instead of having three cusps, the aortic valves have only two flaps. It hinders their task of preventing the backflow of blood. 

Weight loss medications can change the structure of your valves. It results in your blood leaking back to your ventricles. Examples of these medications are fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine.

Rheumatic fever is also a factor when people develop aortic valve regurgitation. The disorder caused the fibers in your valves to thicken, causing them to curl. When they bend, the boundary is not secured enough to ensure a unidirectional flow. 

Pathophysiology

AR occurs when blood from the aorta leaks back into the ventricle. It occurs due to anomalies in the structure of the aortic valve. 

These changes in the flaps cannot keep the blood flowing in one direction. The left ventricle receives blood from both the right atrium and the aorta. There is a volume overload in the chamber.

The pressure in the left ventricle rises because of the blood from the atria and aorta. Usually, when the heart is at rest, the strain in the chamber is low, blood flows freely from the atria. The walls of your pump will have to compensate for these changes.

If the leakage is gradual, your heart can adapt to the changes. It undergoes a few modifications to maintain your cardiac output. It is the amount of blood your heart pumps per minute.

Due to the volume overload in the left ventricle, the myocardial fibers in your blood stretch. These fibers elongate to compensate for the blood flowing back from the aorta.

When the myocardial fibers of your heart stretch, your left ventricle dilates. It enables the chamber to cater to the extra volume of blood it is receiving. The increase in the blood volume means that your main pump must work harder.

Aside from elongating, your heart compensates through hypertrophy. The walls in your heart harden to maintain the cardiac cycle. It thickens to adapt to the rise in pressure needed to pump the blood out.

Unfortunately, the contractility of the myocardial fibers diminishes over time. The ejection rate of blood outside your heart drops. The diastolic pressure increases with the volume. Your ventricles fail due to overwork; heart failure develops right after.

Treatment

Patients with mild aortic regurgitation usually do not display any symptoms. Usually, the treatment is dependent on whether there are visible signs of the disorder or not. 

If you do not have any symptoms, your doctor will usually opt for regular check-ups. You will have to do this to track the progression of the disease. There might also be a need for regular echocardiograms.

If you are at risk of high blood pressure, medications to lower them are necessary.

If the AR is severe, surgery may be an option. It may be through is open-heart surgery or a minimally invasive one. 

What does pathophysiology mean in simple terms?

Pathophysiology describes the changes in the functions of your body because of disease. These abnormalities may be present in your cells, tissues, organs, and body fluids.

It deals with the discrepancies in your body’s usual functions. It is a field that describes how your body responds to disruptions in its internal and external environment.

What do you write in pathophysiology?

Pathophysiology discusses four elements: etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment.

Etiology

Etiology investigates the cause of your disease. It determines whether your disorder is an infection, or if it is hereditary, or an accident. This field describes the disorder that started making alterations in your body.

The following are terms used to describe where your disease may have come from:

• Idiopathic is the term for diseases with unidentifiable causes

• Iatrogenic is the name for diseases that occur due to unnecessary medical treatment.

• Nosocomial are diseases that you get in a hospital due to necessary treatment. 

The Etiologic Classification of Disease are as follows:

o Degenerative diseases

o Iatrogenic diseases

o Idiopathic diseases

o Immunologic diseases

o Infectious diseases

o Inherited diseases

o Metabolic diseases

o Neoplastic diseases

o Nutritional deficiency diseases

o Physical agent-induced diseases

o Psychogenic diseases

Pathogenesis

Pathogenesis discusses the physical manifestations of the disease. It takes note of the changes in your body when you develop the disorder. 

It determines the cause and the set of events that follow. Pathogenesis does this by monitoring your cells, tissues, organs, and systemic functions. 

Clinical Manifestations

Clinical manifestations are the observable signs of disease in your body. These often result coming from pathogenesis. The data is from a series of examinations of the physical and chemical environment of your body.

Treatment

Pathophysiology is necessary when giving treatment. It enables your doctors and nurses to provide the best possible patient care available. They can do this through the proper study of your sickness origins and effects. 

Pathophysiology helps your healthcare providers track the progress of your disease. It also helps them see the effects of your medication because treatment is not just theory. Your body is unique. Thus, treatments that work on others may not be as efficient as yours.

What is clinical pathophysiology?

Clinical pathophysiology identifies the factors that contribute to the disease. It is the field that studies the processes of how you got the disease, why you have it, and its progression in your body. 

It explains the alterations in your physical and chemical environment. This field helps your doctors plan your treatment and give you the best patient care.

Does pathophysiology mean cause?

Pathophysiology does explain the cause of disease, but it is too broad. 

The field of pathophysiology deals with the following questions: How you got the disease? How did it develop in your body? How it affected your organs? Your chemical environment, etc. It does not just look at the cause.

Etiology, the study of the cause of disease, is a subset of pathophysiology. 

In other words, pathophysiology does give you the cause, but it also discusses the mechanisms of the disorder.

Which is the best book for pathophysiology?

The best pathophysiology book depends on how you wish to approach the subject. Textbooks made to cater to medical students are different. They do not cover the basics like anatomy and physiology.

That is why you must know the intended audience of the book.

Clinical Pathophysiology Made Ridiculously Simple by Aaron Berkowitz, M.D., Ph.D.

It is a book for beginners or fields other than medicine. It explains the basics of pathophysiology it does not go any deeper.

Pathophysiology of Disease: An Introduction to Clinical Medicine published by Lange 

If you are a student of medicine, you already know your anatomy and physiology. There is no need for repetitive and redundant information. 

Lange does not only provide you a deeper understanding of the disease but also case studies. These studies, written by doctors and professors, give you different outlooks towards the disease.

References

Albert, C. M., & Stevenson, W. G. (2018). Cardiovascular Collapse, Cardiac Arrest, and Sudden Cardiac Death. In D. L. Kasper, Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Brashers, V. L., & Rote, N. S. (2017). Understanding Pathophysiology (Sixth ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Inc.

Hammer, G. D., & McPhee, S. J. (2014). Pathophysiology of Disease: An Introduction to Clinical Medicine. McGraw-Hill Education.

Huether, S. E., McCance, K. L., Brashers, V. L., & S., R. N. (2017). Introduction to Pathophysiology. In S. E. Huether, K. L. McCance, V. L. Brashers, & R. N. S., Understanding Pathophysiology (pp. 55-57). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier.

Online Etymology Dictionary. (2021, August 18). Retrieved from pathos: https://www.etymonline.com/word/pathos

pathology. (n.d.). Retrieved August 20, 2021, from Online Etymology Dictionary: https://www.etymonline.com/word/pathology

pathology. (n.d.). Retrieved August 20, 2021, from Merriam-Webster: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pathology

Types of Heart Failure. (2018, January 25). InformedHealth.org.

Wang, S. S. (2018, November 19). Aortic Regurgitation. Retrieved from the heart.org Medscape: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/150490-overview#a5

Witthöft, M. (2013). Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine. (M. D. Gellman, & J. R. Turner, Eds.) New York, New York: Springer.

Written by Marydel O. Cagadas

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Defining anatomy will lead you to its Greek origin broken down into, ana which means “up” and temnein – “to cut.” Physiology formulated by the Greek terms physis – “nature or origin” and logia – “study of.”

Anatomy aims to understand the organs and structures of an organism. It started in Ancient Greece and developed through the time of the Renaissance. From dissection, it progressed to the use of technology such as non-invasive imaging.

To explain further, it provides you a context for the structure and location of all organs in the body. This field studies every part of a human. You will learn starting from molecules to cells up to how they form a functional whole.

From its word breakdown, you can’t still define physiology. It provides insights into the mechanical, physical, etc., processes supporting the body’s function. It’s centered on letting you learn the function of cells, organs, and tissues and how they work.

To recall, remember the direct definition of the two essential terms. Anatomy concentrates on the structure and relationships of the parts which compose an organism. In contrast, physiology focuses on the function of the body and its components.

What do you study in anatomy and physiology?

You have acquired an overview of what lessons are in both fields in the definition earlier. A&P is essential to those who are in the medical area. Of course, you’ll need to learn about the structure of the body and how it functions.

You’ll be able to gain knowledge about the causes, diagnoses, and treatment of diseases. Following these is knowing the effects of different conditions leading to discoveries. Knowing this information helps combat certain illnesses which can be life-threatening.

For example, you could learn how to develop cells or the different muscles used while doing sports. Controversial topics are also present, such as cell cloning, genetic engineering, or the impact of COVID-19 on a human being. These things may sound complex, but they could help you in many ways as they are observable in your everyday life.

Through A&P, you’ll be able to learn two distinct approaches to study a living organism. In anatomy, the focus will be on the structure of the organs and tissues that make up the biological systems. In comparison, physiology will always point out the functions of the different organ systems and their components.

Both areas of science are broad but are necessary. For someone who aims to be part of the medical workforce, a complete understanding of both A&P is essential. These fields may be vast, but one can familiarize and master both with reasonable effort and technique.

What are the 5 branches of anatomy?

As we all know, there are different branches in this field. There are two major types: Gross (Macroscopic) and Microscopic. Gross or macroscopic are observable through your naked eye, while microscopic studies the tiny anatomical structures.

These two significant types mentioned above have other subdivisions or classifications.

For Gross, which focuses on the external and internal organs, there are three different fields:

• Surface or Superficial – is the study of external anatomical feature which doesn’t need dissection.
• Regional – concentrates on a human’s specific external and internal regions (e.g., head or chest). This type includes the unity of different systems in a particular area.
• Systemic – this branch emphasizes the structure of different organ systems (e.g., circulatory or nervous system.) This branch gauges the position and structure of deeper organs, tissues, and organ systems.

Moving on towards microscopic, which helps you understand cells and tissues, there are two classifications, which are as follows:

• Cytology – studies the structure and function of cells.
• Histology – explains the details and organization of biological tissues.

The branches mentioned above are only the branches that aid you in learning the structure of humans, also known as anthropotomy (Study.com). There are still many branches that you can discover and here are few more examples:

• Zootomy – the anatomical study of animals.
• Phytotomy – the anatomical study of plants.
• Comparative Anatomy – compares the anatomical characteristics of different organisms.

What are the basics of anatomy?

In such a broad topic as this topic, you would wonder how to start learning this field. For an easier route to explain the basics, there are two objectives you need to achieve:

• Identify specific terms used to describe directions and positions.
• Describe the different organ systems.

Starting with the first objective, the following are the anatomical terms you need to remember:

• Anatomical position – standard reference position for the body in the study of anatomy. In this specific position, the body stands erect, facing the observer, arms down at the sides, and palms facing front.
• Plane – a flat surface formed when slicing through a solid object. A plane is observable when you cut through a dummy or imaginary human body.
• Midline – the imaginary line drawn down the center of the body. This divides it into right and left halves. This is in line with the navel.
• Medial – refers to a position closer to the midline. For example, you would say: “The bridge of the nose is medial to the eyes.”
• Lateral – refers to a position farther away from the midline. Example: The ears are lateral to the nose.
• Bilateral – on both sides.
• Mid-axillary – a line drawn perpendicular from the middle of the armpit to the ankle.
• Anterior/Ventral – front of the body or organ.
• Posterior/Dorsal – back of the body or organ.
• Superior – means above (e.g., the chest is superior to the abdomen).
• Inferior – means below (e.g., the lips are inferior to the nose).
• Proximal – closer to the torso (e.g., the elbow is proximal to the hand).
• Distal – away from the torso (e.g., the wrist is distal to the shoulder).
• Mid-clavicular line – line through the center of each clavicle.

Moving on to the second objective, which is to describe the different organ systems. These are the essential things you need to remember from each organ system:

Musculoskeletal System – provides structure to the body, allows movement, and protects the other systems. Built with various bones and muscles, this is system have the following components:

• Skull – primary function is to enclose and protect the brain. It provides a structure for the face and allows movement of the head.

• Spine – consists of 33 vertebrae stacked one upon the other to form the spinal column. It is important for movement, sensation, and other vital functions.
• Thoracic Cage (Rib Cage) – protects the lungs and heart. It holds a vital role in the expansion and contraction of the lungs.
• Pelvic girdle – is one of the most complex anatomical structures. It contains several attachment points for various large muscles groups of both the trunk and legs.
• Limbs – arms and legs; composed of many different joints and attachment points to allow precise and varied movement.
• Muscles – consist of a bundle of smaller fibers (myofibrils) anchored to a bone via a tendon and innervated by nerves—three types: voluntary, involuntary, and cardiac.

Circulatory System – its role in the delivery of oxygen and glucose to cells and removal of waste.

• The system consists of a pump, pipes, and the fluid they carry.
• Heart – the four-chambered pump: two upper called atria and two lower called ventricles.
• Atria – Right Atrium: the chamber that receives unoxygenated blood returning from the body; Left atrium: the chamber that receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
• Ventricles – Right Ventricle: the chamber that sends oxygen-poor blood to the lungs; Left Ventricle: the chamber that sends oxygen-rich blood to the body.
• Blood Vessels – smooth muscle tubes that can expand and contract. It does not only carry blood but regulates its flow to different areas of the body. Types: arteries, veins, venules, and capillaries – all have distinct functions.
• Blood – red liquid that flows through the body of a living organism. It has many components in different cells: red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell (WBC), platelets, etc.

The Nervous System – controls the entire body. It involves the fibers that run across every inch of the body, which controls muscles, organs, and glands. Two divisions:

• Central Nervous System (CNS) – composed of the brain and spinal cord. Neurons make up both structures and support cells together with large blood vessels and capillaries.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – extensive and covers all areas of the body. It’s composed of nerves that have numerous functions: it controls the movement, organ function and returns sensory information towards the spinal cord and brain.

Digestive System – exists to break down and absorb ingested material for energy & creation of new cells.

• It has two divisions: hollow organs and solid organs.

Respiratory System – its role is to bring oxygen from the air. An organism can only get oxygen through blood circulation.

• Hollow Organs – composed of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
• Esophagus: a physical tube that connects the mouth to the stomach.
• Stomach: both grinds up food and digest it with acid.
• Intestines: absorbs nutrients (small); resorption of water and formation of feces (large).
• Solid organs – composed of the liver and pancreas.
• Liver: has a dual purpose of producing bile – helps absorb fats in the intestines and detoxify the blood.
• Pancreas: also has a dual role – production of enzymes that break down protein and hormones that balance blood glucose.

• Upper Respiratory Tract – (nose & mouth) handles the initial cleaning and warming of air before transmission to the lower airways. It carries air, food & fluids to the esophagus.
• Lower Respiratory Tract – transfers air through a branching inverted three made up of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles until it reaches the alveoli. These organs are responsible for how blood gets oxygen.
• Diaphragm: a sheet of muscle at the base of the lungs. It pulls air into the airways through the negative pressure in the chest.

Integumentary System – provides the physical barrier between the inner systems of the body and the outside environment. Three main layers:

• Epidermis: a thick layer of dead cells. It acts as the sacrificial layer of the body.
• Dermis: living skin layer with cells that continue to multiply and divide.
• Subcutaneous layer: fat storage that acts as a significant insulating layer for the body.

You can explore more organ systems, but the mentioned six systems are the most common ones.

What is the main difference between anatomy and physiology?

This question goes back towards the definition of both terms wherein; anatomy is the study of the structures associated with the human body. Meanwhile, physiology is the study of the function of each system. Both offer distinct ways of studying a living organism.

Both fields have different subjects to study. Anatomy focuses on the size, shape, and location of a living organism’s body structures. In comparison, physiology focuses on the chemical, physical, and electrical processes of the organism.

Anatomy can stand alone. You can understand it through the dissection of one living organism. In contrast, physiology needs to be together to understand each organ’s function and its systems.

Although anatomy can be independent, it is still essential to learn both fields as they are necessary to medical science.

Why is anatomy so important?

It is essential for countless reasons. But for allied health providers, it is necessary as the concerns of your patients’ needs knowledge in this field.

Let’s start by discussing diagnoses. Upon diagnosing a patient for a particular disease, anatomy plays a vital role in pinpointing the specific location of the pain they feel. You can also determine through it why this abnormality is fatal.

Identification of physical symptoms or irregularities are not the only things discovered through anatomy. At a microscopic level, you can identify new diseases through the study. With the help of this identification, you can explore how to combat these illnesses.

After diagnosis, through anatomy, it is easier to help your patients understand what disease they have. A complete understanding of this field is a must to simplify complex terms for those not in the medical field. Making your patients understand can help in letting them feel at ease despite the pain they are feeling.

Remember that you need to understand the structure of a human and the corresponding functions of each system. There is an interconnection between organ systems that a disease in one system can affect the others. Without considering these connections, it can be dangerous and may lead to misdiagnosis.

The field of medicine requires three things:

1. You must have the character to be able to support and help patients.
2. You must have the specific technical knowledge necessary to make justified decisions.
3. You must have the required clinical skills to use the knowledge you have learned.

Learning anatomy falls to the second condition. Thus, it is essential. It is challenging to master this field, but you can do it with perseverance and hard work.

Is studying anatomy hard?

As mentioned earlier, learning anatomy is challenging. You need to have a considerable amount of time and dedication. Perseverance, patience, and hard work are necessary because there are no shortcuts.

Expect that you need to invest 10-12 hours or even more per week of studying. This time estimation is only for study sessions you spend during breaks or outside class. Time management is vital while learning this field.

It needs a lot of memorization. This skill includes both visuals (cadavers, 3D models, charts) and the definition of terms. It would be best if you prepared techniques so you can store all information.

Critical thinking is also a component that you need to consider. With it, you’ll be able to identify a part of anatomy based on clues. This skill needs countless enhancements before you can acquire it.

Even though it is challenging, learning anatomy is not impossible. You need to develop the proper study techniques. Being equipped with all the mentioned values, skills, and practices would guarantee your learning.

REFERENCES:

Anatomy – Dictionary Definition. (n.d.). Vocabulary.Com. Retrieved August 17, 2021, from https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/anatomy

Cena, C. (2020, May 11). Study.com | Take Online Courses. Earn College Credit. Research Schools, Degrees & Careers. Study.Com. https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-anatomy-definition-history.html

Helmenstine, A. M. (2019, July 3). Understand the Difference Between Anatomy and Physiology. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/difference-between-anatomy-and-physiology-4147571

Introduction to A&P | MedicTests. (n.d.). Medictests. Retrieved August 16, 2021, from https://medictests.com/units/introduction-to-a-p

Jaquith, K. (2015, February 27). 9 Study Tips To Help You Learn Human Anatomy. Universal Medical Inc. Blog. https://blog.universalmedicalinc.com/9-study-tips-help-learn-human-anatomy/

Oltre, A. (n.d.). Anatomy Next. Anatomy. Retrieved August 16, 2021, from https://anatomy.net/blog/human-anatomy/

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology | Boundless Anatomy and Physiology. (n.d.). Lumen. Retrieved August 16, 2021, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/overview-of-anatomy-and-physiology/

Physiological – Dictionary Definition. (n.d.). Vocabulary.Com. Retrieved August 17, 2021, from https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/physiological#:%7E:text=You%20know%20that%20the%20root,body%20(think%20of%20those%20phys.&text=That%20root%20comes%20from%20the,Ta%2Dtaa!

Reporter, G. S. (2019, June 7). University subject profile: anatomy and physiology. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/jun/07/subject-guide-anatomy-and-physiology

Stanford, K., Rutland, S., Sturrock, C. J., & Rutland, C. S. (2020). The Importance of Anatomy. Frontiers for Young Minds, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/frym.2020.546763

What Is Anatomy and Physiology? (n.d.). CliffsNotes. Retrieved August 16, 2021, from https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/anatomy-and-physiology/anatomy-and-chemistry-basics/what-is-anatomy-and-physiology

Why is Human Anatomy and Physiology so important to your success in a health care field? (n.d.). Dept.Clcillinois.Ed. Retrieved August 16, 2021, from http://dept.clcillinois.edu/biodv/healthlibrary/pdf/WhyAP.pdf