Written by Chelsea Oaminal

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

The endoplasmic reticulum is one of the cell’s many organelles that are vital to its processes and overall function. It has two components, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough endoplasmic reticulum, both of which serve different purposes to the cell.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) gets its name from the ribosomes that are studded all over its surface. It is composed of long and flattened structures called cisternae, which increase its surface area. These tubules are where the ribosomes are attached to.

The average liver cell’s RER has about 13 million ribosomes. These tiny structures synthesize proteins for the cell. If a cell has a high percentage of RER, it will make more protein.

Eukaryotic cells that specialize in protein production naturally have more ribosomes and a higher percentage of RER.

Proteins are molecules used in the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs. Though some ribosomes are free floating, most of the cell’s ribosomes are located on the RER. This is why it is the organelle most associated with protein synthesis.

On the other hand, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is incredibly visually different from the RER and lacks ribosomes. Instead of protein, it synthesizes lipids such as cholesterol and phospholipids. It also is made up of tubules instead of cisternae.

Lipids are fatty compounds that form cell membranes and perform a variety of other roles in the body. They’re known for moving energy, absorbing vitamins, and producing hormones. In the liver cell, the SER helps detoxify harmful substances.

The SER and RER are both part of a larger group called the endomembrane system, which deals with lipids and proteins in the cell. The other parts of the system include:

• Cell membrane. This organelle regulates what exits and enters the cell. It interacts with the other parts of the endomembrane system and exports proteins as well.
• Vacuoles. They function in the storage and transport of waste, such as the by-products of the Golgi complex.
• The nuclear membrane. It encloses the cell’s nucleus and is continuous with the outer membrane of the RER. This is because the RER is located very close to the nucleus.
• Lysosomes. These contain digestive enzymes that break down excess cell parts.
• Golgi complex. This organelle is known for packaging the protein and lipid molecules made by the ER for transport inside and outside the cell.
• Vesicles. They are small cellular containers that assist with transporting the materials the cell needs to survive.

Cells are the building blocks of all living things. The average human being has a range of 28 – 36 trillion cells in their body, with each one constantly at work to fulfill a goal for the body. Each one of these cells has a working RER and SER.

The organelles in each membrane all serve a purpose, especially the ones in the endomembrane system. These distinct functions, including cell organization and productivity, allow every living cell to operate at its full potential.

Fun fact: Both animal and plant cells contain an endoplasmic reticulum, but it is noticeably absent in prokaryotic cells. This is because prokaryotic cells are simple structures and don’t contain membrane-bound organelles. The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane-bound organelle.

Why is the endoplasmic reticulum important for survival?

Without the endoplasmic reticulum, a cell cannot survive. All of its processes ensure that the cell’s life is maintained and kept stable. It is an incredibly detailed process that needs to be followed to keep a secure working flow.

The protein synthesized by ribosomes is incredibly versatile. It is used for structural cell support, replicating and transcribing DNA, and is also necessary for cell division to occur. Protein molecules are very complex and can do many different tasks.

It is involved in homeostasis, which is the maintenance of a stable environment in cells. Maintaining this state is crucial to allow for a cell’s growth, structural integrity, and overall proper function.

Another key process it hosts is protein folding. This is mainly done in the RER when a newly formed protein chain is folded into a three-dimensional structure.

To put it simply, proteins are first synthesized as amino acids. This eventually develops and folds into a proper structure. Proper folding will allow the protein to perform its necessary functions, but improper folding can lead to cell malfunction and death.

Lastly, the endoplasmic reticulum is heavily involved in the overall maintenance of the cell membrane. The cell membrane’s purpose is the protection of the cell. Without the SER, there would be no lipids to help cells maintain and repair their membranes.

Every organelle is involved in incredibly intricate processes that are only possible with the presence of the endoplasmic reticulum. Without it maintaining homeostasis in the cell, cell death is highly likely to occur.

What are the key functions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

The key function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the protein synthesis done by its ribosomes. That is what it is known for.

Protein Synthesis and Folding

The beginning of the process starts in the nucleus, the control center of the cell. Here, transcription is the first part of the process.

A part of the DNA in the nucleus is used to make a messenger RNA (also known as mRNA, used as a template for protein production) molecule. This molecule carries instructions for the protein production outside the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

The ribosomes start the process of translation by using the mRNA to assemble amino acids into protein. The last step before a protein is completed is folding, when the coil turns into a fully functional three-dimensional protein molecule.

Protein misfolding is a highly dangerous event that can lead to serious issues for the cell. It is believed to be the cause of a variety of different degenerative diseases. Some examples include Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and cystic fibrosis.

To prevent this, chaperones for proteins exist. These are specialized proteins that bind to unfolded ones to stabilize and guide them through a proper folding process.

The rough ER is essentially a site of quality control that creates protein and ensures no defective ones pass on to the next location. It allows the entire process to move smoothly.

What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

Despite having no ribosomes, the function of the SER is no less important than the RER. It plays a very different role.

Lipid Synthesis and Detoxification

Lipid synthesis is a key operation of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Lipids do many things, including keeping the cellular membrane properly maintained. It does this through phospholipids.

The production of phospholipids is one of the most necessary tasks of the SER. Phospholipids make up the lipid bilayer surrounding cells and organelles. It allows the membrane to be semi-permeable and choose what is able to enter the cell and what isn’t.

The SER is also involved in the production of cholesterol, another important part of cell membranes that aids in steroid hormone production. Examples of steroid hormones in the human body include the ones like testosterone, cortisol, and estrogen. The production of these is also commonly associated with the adrenal glands, which are small glands that produce hormones that help with different body functions.

Aside from lipid synthesis, the smooth ER is highly valued for its detoxification properties. It plays a large part in converting chemicals into safer, more water-soluble products.

In the liver, there is an abundance of smooth ER because it requires quite a bit of detoxification. It is necessary to clean the natural byproducts of metabolism but also for detoxifying the effects of alcoholic drinking on the human liver.

When in need of extra support, it is capable of growing and increasing its surface area to better help with the clean-up. After it has finished, it will shrink once again to its normal size.

In skeletal muscle cells, the smooth ER is considered special and is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. It is a necessary storage site for calcium ions. Aside from allowing muscle contraction, the calcium content in the endoplasmic reticulum allows a good environment for the process of protein folding.

How do the smooth and rough ER work together?

Though they look very different and have distinct functions, both the smooth and rough ER are sub-components of one organelle. They work together to perform similar tasks for the cell.

For the cell to use the proteins and lipids that it produces, transportation must occur. The SER and RER are located very close to each other. This allows for a seamless transfer of vesicles containing the synthesized molecules.

They both send these molecules to the Golgi apparatus, where they are sorted even more before they reach their specific destinations. With the work the smooth and rough ER do to the molecules they synthesize, the job is easier on the Golgi apparatus and the process becomes smoother.

Their functions are still complementary despite their differences. Together, they allow the cell’s organelles to have structural integrity as well as the machinery they need for their roles.

Who discovered the endoplasmic reticulum?

In 1945, Keith Porter, Albert Claude, and Ernest Fullam were able to see the endoplasmic reticulum for the first time through an electron microscope. This was groundbreaking and new because of advanced imaging techniques that had been recently developed.

Many years later, Porter used the words “endoplasmic” and “reticulum” to describe the organelle they had seen. “Endoplasmic” refers to its position within the cell, while “reticulum” is a Latin word for “network.” It was an appropriate description for the appearance of the organelle under the microscope.

One of the biggest discoveries was made by George E. Palade. This man, who worked at Rockefeller institute, discovered the process of protein synthesis. He showed that proteins were made on the ribosomes attached to the RER and explained how they were transported to their respective destinations.

The next great discovery was the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR), a stress response mechanism in the ER. This mechanism helps maintain homeostasis in the cell by identifying misfolded proteins. It attempts to regain normal function by eliminating and slowing the accumulation of these proteins.

Over the years, technology has improved massively and people have made more discoveries on the ER. Studying its roles and effects inside and outside the cell allow for a clearer understanding of the cell as a whole.

Conclusion

The endoplasmic reticulum, with its two sub-components, can be used to further understand a variety of other different cellular processes. It has many different functions and other processes it plays a big part in. From dealing with the synthesis of different molecules to waste cleanup in the cell, the significance of this organelle should not be underestimated.

Gaining a thorough understanding of each and every part of the cell is a vital foundation that will pave the way to a mastery of anatomy & physiology. Each part has a highly specific purpose and goal to contribute to the life of the cell as a whole.

References

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Written by Alexa Mae C. Niez

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Ever wonder what you are made of? What components underlie your body? Well, you’re in luck, as we will tackle these topics, specifically Cells. As stated in the cell theory, these are present all over your body as this is an essential functional unit of all living organisms.

Cells are microscopic, surrounded by a membrane which encloses the cytoplasm within. As we go through this article, we will learn more about these tiny units that comprise your whole being.

Molecularly speaking, cells are made up of carbon-containing (organic) molecules, inorganic ions, and water. Structurally, it is divided into three parts–cellular membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. These can be unicellular or multicellular.

Molecular Components

Organic Molecules

Cells are made from the same significant classes of organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. These are unique components of the cells. Additionally, its structure and function can be understood by these materials.

Carbohydrates

These are the cells’ significant nutrients, including simple sugars and polysaccharides. This undergoes a process of breaking down that contributes to cellular respiration.

• Simple sugars – Also known as monosaccharides, they comprise single sugar molecules. These can join together to form oligosaccharides (few conjoint sugars) or polysaccharides through dehydration reactions.
• Common simple sugars are glucose, galactose, and fructose.
• Polysaccharides – Composed of many bonded sugar molecules. Also, the majority of the natural carbohydrates take this form. The connection between molecules can be separated through the hydrolysis reaction.
• Common polysaccharides are glycogen and starch.

Lipids

Contributes to energy storage, the formation of cellular membranes, and cell signaling. Its simplest form is the fatty acids, which comprise a carboxyl group at the end of lengthy hydrocarbon chains, usually up to 16-18 carbon atoms.

• Unsaturated Fatty Acids – Double bonds are present between carbon atoms.
• Saturated Fatty Acids – All carbon atoms bond with the maximum quantity of hydrogen atoms.

Since this has one nonpolar hydrocarbon bond, its hydrophobic characteristics enable it to be the main component for creating cellular membranes.

• Phospholipids – The main component of cell membranes is a combination of two fatty acids connected to a polar head. This has a hydrophobic tail containing two hydrocarbon chains and hydrophilic heads.
• Other common lipids are triglycerides and cholesterol.

Nucleic acids

They comprise nucleotides, building blocks that play a significant role in cell processes. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, the cell’s main informational molecules.

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – Located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, it has a unique role as its genetic material.
• Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) – Produces proteins using amino acids and is responsible for numerous cellular activities. It has different types that have different purposes.
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA) – Helps in carrying information from the DNA to the ribosomes, hence its name.
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA) – This has a cloverleaf structure and consists of molecules that translate the mRNA into proteins.
  • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – Forms the ribosomes, essential for protein synthesis.

Proteins

It comprises amino acids, which are its building blocks. Derived from the Greek word proteios, which means “of the first rank,” it is the most crucial molecule in biological chemistry.

There are three types of amino acids: (Humans only use 20)

• Non-essential (5) – Can be obtained from food or in the body.Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartic acid, and Glutamic acid.

• Conditionally Essential (6) – Healthy bodies can be created under normal physiologic conditions. Critical for cases such as starvation or inborn errors of Metabolism.
  • Arginine, Cysteine, Glutamine, Glycine, Proline, and Tyrosine.

• Essential (9) – Cannot be generated from the body. These are from dietary proteins that make important molecules and specific hormones.
  • Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, and Valine.

Proteins execute tasks using information carried by genetic material. These are diverse and different proteins with several functions in each cell containing them.

Also, it serves as the structural component of cells and tissues, stores and transports small molecules, transmits information between cells, and defends against infections.

Its integral property is that it can act as an enzyme to catalyze almost all chemical reactions.

• There are four levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
• Primary – Amino acid sequence in polypeptide chains.
• Secondary – Regular assembly of amino acids in regions of polypeptides. Commonly, these can be α helix and β sheet.
• Tertiary – Folding of polypeptide chains due to interactions between amino acid side chains throughout various primary sequence regions.
• Quaternary – relationships between various polypeptide chains in proteins comprising many polypeptides. An example is the hemoglobin, the protein that brings color to our blood.

Inorganic Ions

The ions that are present in the cell and comprise 1% or less of the mass include sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), and magnesium (Mg²⁺). Calcium (Ca²⁺), phosphate (HPO42-), chloride (Cl^–), and bicarbonate (HCO3-). These ions participate in cell metabolism, which plays a critical role in its function.

• Sodium is an electrolyte cation that helps maintain homeostasis through osmoregulation, blood and body fluid volume, and pH regulation.
• Potassium ions help move nutrients inside the cell and excrete waste products.
• Magnesium ions function in enzymatic reactions, transferring, storing, and using energy.
• Calcium ions regulate enzymatic activities and cellular events such as muscle contraction, secretion, and cell division.
• Phosphate ions are responsible for enzymatic reactions such as glycolysis and ammoniagenesis and help form the phospholipid layer of cell membranes, DNA, RNA, and proteins.
• Chloride ions help regulate the extracellular compartment’s water, osmotic pressure, pH, and ion balance.
• Bicarbonate ions help with the pH homeostasis and transport of ions and organic substrates through cellular membranes.

Water (H2O)

Water is the most abundant component, accounting for 70% or more of its total mass. The interaction between the H2O in the cell is significant in its interaction with the other elements, specifically in biological chemistry.

Structural Components

Cell Membrane, also known as plasma membrane, is the cell covering that separates its interior from the surrounding environment. It consists of a semipermeable lipid bilayer, essential for transporting nutrients, ions, and substances in and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm is the thick-fluid content of the plasma membrane, which mainly comprises water, salts, and proteins. This houses the organelles and is the site of many cellular processes.

Organelles are “Small Organs,” which are subcellular structures that have specific functions in the cell.

• The nucleus is found in all eukaryotic cells and is double-membraned (porous) in structure. This is the largest organelle and the information repository. Additionally, this is the cell’s control center or mainly its brain.
  • This houses the nucleolus covered by the nuclear envelope and contains the chromosomes, thread-like structures that carry genes.
• The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They help transport materials throughout the cell.
• The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and comprises cisternae, tubules, and vesicles found all over the cell. Its rough name came from the ribosomes attached to its membrane surface.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum is the storage organelle and is the site for lipid synthesis, which also functions as the detoxifier of the cell.
• Mitochondria is known as the “powerhouse of the cell” because it produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• Plastids (Present only in plant cells) are large membrane-bound organelles that contain pigments. Depending on their pigments, there are three types of plastids: Chloroplasts, Chromoplasts, and Leucoplasts.
• Ribosomes are the site for protein synthesis and are cytoplasmic organelles found near or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• Golgi Apparatus, or the Golgi Complex, is a flattened membrane-bound organelle with stacked pounces called cisternae. This transports, modifies, and packages proteins to specific destinations.
• The cytoskeleton is the continuous network of structures present throughout the cytoplasm. This comprises different proteins, actin, and tubulin, to provide shape and mechanical resistance.
• Cilia and Flagella are hair-like structures outside the cell. This helps in the movement of the cell.
• The centrosome is composed of centrioles, which form spindle fibers during cell division and also form the bases of the cilia and flagella.
• Vacuoles are storage bubbles filled with fluid enclosed by a membrane found in the cell. This stores food and nutrients that the cell needs.

What is a human cell?

A Human Cell is the smallest functional unit of life. It comprises the tissues, organs, the organ system, and the human organism. Each of these cells contains genetic material that can replicate itself. They provide structure, take in nutrients, and transform them into energy, enabling our body to function.

The body comprises trillions of cells, each with a different function. The following are the various types of cells:

• Stem Cells are special cells that can turn into any cell.
• Bone cells form our bones and are of at least three main types: osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes.
• Blood Cells transport nutrients and oxygen throughout the body. There are three types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
• Female egg cells are the largest human cells essential for reproduction.
• Sperm Cells fertilize the ovum and are the smallest cells in the human body.
• Fat Cells, also known as adipocytes, are fats the body uses for energy.
• Muscle Cells, also called myocytes, are long tubular cells essential for movement, support, and internal functions.
• Nerve Cells, also known as neurons, are the body’s communication system, comprising two parts: the cell body and nerve processes–axons and dendrites.

How do cells work?

Cells metabolize food to energy and divide to produce more.

Cellular Metabolism consists of controlled biochemical reactions in a cell to maintain homeostasis. These processes are essential for organisms to grow and produce. It is divided into two processes: anabolic and catabolic.

• Anabolic Metabolism uses energy to form molecules like nucleic acids and enzymes to perform specific functions. There are three stages: production of precursors, activation into reactive forms, and assembly of precursors.
• Catabolic Metabolism is the breaking down of complex molecules. This serves as the source of energy and components to form anabolic reactions. This process is usually exothermic.

Cell Division is the formation of new cells from parent cells. The cell undergoes two types of cell division:

• Mitosis replicates one parent cell to two daughter cells, essential for growth and repair.
• Meiosis divides a parent cell into four genetically different daughter cells, which is significant in human reproduction.

Why do cells need water?

Water, the universal solvent, is essential for your body, especially your cells, to function correctly. Humans are composed of 70% water, which is a crucial component.

• It facilitates the transportation of nutrients inside the cell and the excretion of waste products outside through the osmosis process from low to high concentrations.
• Additionally, water is a small and fast molecule, so it acts as a lubricant when large-scale motions are needed to move large molecules.

Are all cells alive?

Being alive, by definition, is anything that grows, moves, reproduces, and respires are considered to be living. A cell functions the same way. As cells are the smallest fundamental life unit, all cells are considered alive.

All living organisms are made from cells, from the only unicellular organisms to the trillions of multicellular beings.

How long do cells live?

The majority of the cells eventually die, but not all. On average, cells in your body live up to 7 to 10 years. The lifespan of cells differs depending on the type of cell.

Commonly known cells’ lifespans:

• Nerve cells stay alive for the rest of a person’s life.
• Heart muscle cells live up to forty years, regenerating in limited amounts.
• White blood cells live for around two weeks.
• Red blood cells live for about four months.
• Liver Cells can live up to eighteen months.
• Epidermal Cells live up to two weeks.
• Fat Cells live around eight years.
• Egg Cells up to fifty years.

What happens when a cell dies?

Cell death happens when cells in your body stop working and die. As cells perish because of cell division, they are recycled to produce new, efficient ones. It is already established that each cell has its lifespan. Thus, natural cell death is essential for keeping your body healthy.

There are three types of cell death:

• Apoptosis happens naturally when a cell needs to self-destruct or die. This usually occurs when maximum cell division is achieved.
• Autophagy is another form of programmed cell death, which occurs when your body is experiencing stress or hunger. It reuses old cell parts to make new ones.
• Necrosis is an unexpected death due to the lack of blood flow, leading to tissue death. This also happens when people are deceased.

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Written by Sam Gabriel Escueta

Edited and Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Software is used to operate computers to do specific tasks. It mainly automizes people’s work to make their jobs more efficient.

They are computer programs that perform specific functions on a computer. Different kinds of it are used for various functions. Below are some examples of different kinds of software:

• Word Processing Software is used to manipulate text to create documents. These can design fonts, change text formats, and check for grammatical and spelling errors. Examples of this include Google Docs.

• Graphics Software is used to manipulate graphics in graphical documents. Examples include illustration and picture editing applications such as Adobe Photoshop and Procreate.

• Spreadsheet Software is mainly used to manipulate numerical data and do calculations. It stores data in the form of tables, having rows and columns. Examples of this include Google Sheets.

• Presentation Software is mainly used to create and present visual information. This can present texts, images, graphs, and videos. Examples of this include Google Slides and Microsoft PowerPoint.

• Web Browsers are applications used to browse the internet. It lets you watch and download images and videos and search for information. Famous examples include Internet Explorer, MS Edge, and Safari.

• Multimedia Software is used to create, edit, and sometimes present multimedia such as images, audio, and videos. Examples include VLC Media Player, MX Player, and Windows Media Player.

• Education and Reference Software, or Academic Software, facilitates learning. Examples of this include Google Earth and NASA World Wind.

• Simulation Software is used to replicate real-life situations and operations for learning purposes. This is used in military engineering, industrial training, flight systems, machinery testing, and others. An example of this is MATLAB.

How does software help people of different disciplines?

Software helps people mainly through automation. It automizes the work that people do, making it more efficient. It allows humans to do their job better with less effort.

It helps people in different ways depending on the field and discipline that they are working on. Below are some examples of how it aids people in their work:

Healthcare

Software helps healthcare patients in so many ways. One is through health information systems. Different kinds of health information systems have various functions. Below are some examples of health information systems:

• Electronic Medical Records (ECM) are systems that replace paper patient records. This collects patients’ medical information and stores it electronically. This makes data access and retrieval more efficient.

• Practice Management Software manages daily medical operations in a facility. This includes patient scheduling and medical services billing. This automates tasks to make workflow more efficient.

• Laboratory Information System (LIS) processes, stores, and manages patient data from laboratory tests. This improves doctor-lab technician coordination, with technicians assisting doctors with diagnoses.

• Clinical Decision Support System aids in clinical decision-making through analyzing data. It provides assessments or recommendations based on the data it analyzed.

These systems help healthcare workers by assisting, saving time, and making their work more efficient.

Business

Software helps business owners enhance their operations, improve efficiency, and stay competitive. Below are some of its examples and how they help business owners:

• Time Tracking and Billing Software allow employees to manage their time in billing clients.

• Accounting Software makes employees’ workflow smoother and more straightforward than traditional accounting. This makes calculations faster and tracking payments easier, increasing productivity and efficiency.

• Customer Relationship Management enables accountants to be constantly updated with their clients. This encourages interaction, improving their relationships.

• Team Communication Software allows multiple employees from different places to communicate, encouraging collaboration. This reduces misunderstandings and increases their work productivity.

• Practice/Project Management Software allows employees to organize their projects and track progress. This also allows employees to map their plans, encouraging collaboration and improving productivity.

This improves business processes, making companies more efficient and pushing them to the top.

Product Engineering

Software helps product engineers design, simulate, and test products. It does this with better precision and accuracy. This reduces the costs and improves the quality of their product.

Product engineers use different kinds with various functions. Below are some examples that they use:

• Computer-aided Design (CAD) Software enables engineers to create and design models of products. This is what they commonly use.

• Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Software simulates and tests the products under various conditions. This allows engineers to optimize their designs based on different factors.

• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Software simulates fluid flow and heat transfer in products. This allows engineers to optimize their designs for efficiency and performance.

• Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) Software manages product development, from design to manufacturing.

This helps product engineers simulate and test their products before production. This also allows them to revise and optimize their designs to make them flawless and more cost-effective.

What are system software and application software?

All software examples mentioned above are under one of the two main types: System Software and Application Software. These vary in purpose and serve the user in different ways.

System software keeps the computer’s essential functions running in the background while the user uses it. It runs a computer’s hardware and manages the computer itself.

It is important to people as it enables computer systems to do various things:

• It enables communication between the software and hardware components of the system.

• It manages computer resources. This includes the memory, CPU usage, and storage, ensuring system operations run efficiently.

• It provides security such as firewalls, antivirus, and encryption. This protects the system from security threats.

• It supports the installation and running of applications on the system.

• It allows for customization of the system settings and configurations.

System software is important as it bridges the user and the computer hardware. Without it, computers won’t act appropriately. It performs memory management, storage, security, and customization tasks.

Application software, on the other hand, performs tasks and commands that its users give. It enables automation, which improves work productivity and efficiency.

It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory and payroll programs, and others. Below are examples of kinds of application software:

• It allows seamless connectivity and quick communication response.

• It helps collect, store, and manage data and documents.

• It can be used for educational purposes, such as e-learning systems.

• It can develop visuals and videos for presentations.

• It can manage accounting, finance, and other business-related work to be smooth and efficient.

• It can help in customer relationship management.

• It can manage small and large-scale projects.

In contrast, system software provides a platform for other software and hardware to run, while application software performs specific tasks for the user.

What software you use depends on your field of work and the function that you need. Most are easily accessible, but some are needed to be bought. Also, some are simpler to use and understand compared to others. So, choose them wisely.

How do you choose a good software?

When choosing software, judging it according to some standards is recommended. More importantly, it must meet your needs, perform as intended, be reliable, and be easy to maintain.

It should have specific characteristics that meet its purpose. Below are some examples of characteristics of a good software:

• Functionality. It works and behaves as intended. It meets the requirements and specifications that it was designed for.

• Usability. It is easy to use and understand, providing a positive experience.

• Reliability. It is accurate and is free of defects.

• Performance. It can handle large amounts of data or traffic and runs efficiently.

• Security. The software and Its data are safe from unauthorized access and malicious attacks.

• Maintainability. It is easy for other developers to update, understand, and modify.

• Reusability. It can be reused in other applications or projects.

• Scalability. It can handle increasing workloads and can easily extend under changing requirements.

• Testability. It can easily be validated through numerous and extensive tests.

With these characteristics, the software can perform its purpose. It can also provide the best experience and advantages.

What are the advantages of software?

The use of software, especially in a professional or group setting, provides significant benefits to its users. It provides automation, increasing work productivity, efficiency, and sustainability.

The advantages it brings vary throughout different disciplines and industries. Below are some common examples of software advantages:

• Increases accessibility. It allows multiple people from different places to access, work, and accomplish tasks together. This enables cooperation, increasing productivity and efficiency.

• Unifies communication. It enables and improves group communication.

• Increases organization. It can collect and store large amounts of data. This data can be accessible to people, enabling them to manage it easily.

• Increases engagement. It enables the presentation of different multimedia, increasing engagement in presentations and meetings.

• Improve decision-making. It can help generate, test, and evaluate ideas, assisting decision-making.

• Increase productivity. Its tools and custom workflows eliminate manual input, save time, and boost productivity.

• More reliable data. Using functional and verified applications improves data collection, storage, and management.

• Enhanced analysis. It can gather data together into one application. This enables quick and systematic analysis of multiple data, increasing analysis efficiency.

• Improved data security. By gathering data into a single application, keeping it safe and secure is much easier than managing multiple data storages. It can also provide backup in case of emergencies.

• Better customer service. It enables quick access to customer data, which is vital for maintaining good relationships. This can help you assist customers more effectively.

• Increased sales potential. Automation can help improve the execution of sale processes such as product delivery and customer service.

What is the most important software?

The operating system is the most important of all kinds of software. This program controls a computer system’s resources and memory. It manages all other application programs, including the computer’s software and hardware.

Operating systems coordinate the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and storage. This is to ensure that each program meets its needs. Below are some of its other functions:

• Assign needed hardware to programs.

• Assigns the necessary input and output devices.

• Schedules programs for execution on the processor.

• Maintains file directories and provides access to the data in the files.

• Manage data and program files.

Operating systems typically come built-in on every computer. However, it is possible to change or upgrade these systems. These systems manage everything the computer does, from when it is turned on until it is shut down.

It is responsible for the graphical user interface (GUI) you see when a computer is turned on. It displays texts and graphics and allows you to type and click icons and buttons.

The most common operating systems for personal computers are Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux. For mobile devices, the most common are Apple iOS and Google Android.

Conclusion

Overall, software works in different ways depending on how they are developed. They each have their functions, goals, and reasons to have been made. They also have various benefits and advantages depending on how they are used.

They not only improve efficiency and productivity through automation but also provide a better way of life for everyone.

With the advancement of technology, more software will continue to advance and develop, pushing our society to greater heights.

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Written by Sophia Calumpang

Edited and Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Today’s genomics produces a large amount of data. As labs face more data, new rules, and technology, they must update how they manage information.

A LIMS tool helps you organize samples and data while following rules. If manual tasks cause mistakes or delays in tracking samples, a LIMS can make it easier and more accurate.

Also, it makes it easy to keep records and create reports, which reduces mistakes and speeds up the work.

It has many essential features: It is easy to set up and can fit customer needs and change as the lab grows. It tracks a sample’s journey from when it arrives, through storage and testing, until disposal.

The system has a simple interface for users to access different sections based on roles. It also makes it easy to share data with other instruments.

LIMS is a flexible tool that provides many solutions for lab work. Its wide range of features and reliability are essential for different industries.

From manufacturing to forensics, every lab can enjoy using LIMS.

These are some of the industries that use LIMS:

Industrial Production

LIMS helps chemical, plastic, oil, and mining manufacturers improve product quality. It streamlines production, updates old processes, finds problems, and solves them.

Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology

These create new medicines and ensure your products are safe and work well. LIMS helps you make drugs better and faster so you can sell products as soon as possible.

Food Industry

Food production requires careful control. LIMS can help by regulating current processes and testing new ideas.

Environmental Protection

Many businesses, big and small, must keep up with changing air, water, and pollution rules. This can be hard. LIMS helps by offering tools that lower the risk of crossing safe limits and make it easier to follow the rules.

Criminology

Crime keeps happening, so law enforcement must act fast and use new tools. LIMS helps courts, forensic labs, and the field personnel manage resources, results, and evidence.

Diagnostics and Healthcare

Using LIMS in healthcare labs ensures:

• high-quality data;
• reliable research results, and;
• better integration of lab tools.
• LIMS helps track and manage all tasks, making work easier for lab workers.

How Does a Laboratory Information System Work?

The LIMS tracks a sample from when it enters the lab until it’s finished. This includes steps like storing, testing, reporting, and archiving.

When a sample arrives, the LIMS adds it to the system and gives it a unique ID number. As the sample moves through the lab, you can update its information in the LIMS to keep a complete record.

Below is the workflow of LIMS:

• Test Order. You request a specific test done on a sample.
• Sample Registration (Barcode). Adding a sample to the system and labeling it with a barcode for tracking.
• Sample Preparation. Make the sample ready for testing.
• Task Allocation. Assign specific jobs or tests to staff members.
• Sample Testing. Perform the actual tests on the sample.
• Result Registration. Enter the test results into the system.
• Result Validation and Approval. Checking and confirming that the results are correct.
• Certificate of Analysis (CoA). A resulting document that shows the test results and details about the sample.
• CoA Release. Sharing the Certificate of Analysis with the requester.
• Billing and Invoicing. Charging for the tests and sending a bill to the customer.

What are the components of a LIMS?

A LIMS performs these six main functions:

Sample Management

Secures and maintains detailed and accurate records of each sample. It tracks samples from the moment they enter the laboratory until you dispose of them. When you move a sample, the LIMS updates the Chain of Custody. This helps you track where the sample is and who has it.

Inventory Management

Keeps your equipment information timely and tells you when to update it.

Inventory management plays a vital role in daily lab operations. It helps you track stock supplies and reagents. It sends alerts when supplies are low.

Test Management

Gives you complete control over the testing process. It enables you to manage the tests performed on samples and allows easy results entry.

The system tracks the approval of results and facilitates report generation. It also helps you manage different test analytes and assign specific tests to users.

Reporting

It reduces the time you spend on reporting. Reporting is a crucial aspect of a LIMS that allows you to view collected data and identify trends.

It enables you to make reports, track samples, inventory status, test results, and audit.

Document Management

Keeps documents organized. Handles internal and external documents, such as standard operating procedures and consent forms.

It tracks changes, assigns documents for review, and controls access to private files.

Study Management

It assists you in managing clinical research samples associated with specific studies. It allows you to organize data related to different subject groups within a study.

It helps you work with stakeholders like sponsors and research organizations.

What type of data do LIMS store?

Different types of information stored in a LIMS:

Sample Information:

LIMS can store information about lab samples, such as the sample ID, type, and status. It helps follow the sample’s path, ensures on-time processing, and prevents data loss or damage.

It includes:

• sample ID;
• type;
• status;
• the date and time received;
• sources, and;
• Special handling instructions.

Storing this data in LIMS helps ensure fast and accurate processing.

Test Results:

It’s essential to keep the results of each test done on a sample, including test details and outcomes. This information helps analyze lab test results and make intelligent decisions.

Labs include the test date, technician’s name, and notes to maximize test data.

Storing this information in a LIMS helps lab staff track each test immediately. It keeps all data ready for analysis and reporting.

Instrument Data:

Storing data from laboratory tools is essential for accuracy and readability. Laboratory tools include analyzers, spectrometers, and microscopes.

Labs should also keep records of maintenance and calibration for each tool.

When labs store this information in a LIMS, staff can see the condition of tools and make sure they are in good shape.

User Information:

It’s essential to keep information about each user who accesses a LIMS system. This includes usernames, roles, permissions, and access levels. Many LIMS platforms also let labs store training records and test results for users.

This information helps lab staff check user skills and ensure they can do specific tasks.

It helps keep results accurate and stops unauthorized users from seeing private information.

Quality Control Data:

Laboratories need precise and current information about quality control samples, procedures, and results. This info, with records of fixes made after problems, helps reduce risks and meet rules.

With LIMS, lab workers can see how well their quality checks are doing. QCD helps them make changes to ensure lab results are correct and reliable.

What are the Benefits of a LIMS?

One benefit of a LIMS is that it gives labs one place to do many activities. This helps everyone keep important information safe in one place, making labs paperless.

• Productivity. Wasting time is costly, so labs need their technicians to work hard to get the best results. Luckily, modern labs use new tools to help workers do their jobs better and faster. A LIMS (Laboratory Information Management System) is one of these helpful tools. It makes work easier for lab technicians by giving them simple but powerful features. With LIMS, workers can get more done and focus on essential jobs instead of wasting time on tedious tasks. LIMS also speeds up critical lab processes and helps find information faster.
• Automation. LIMS helps increase productivity by automating many lab tasks. This means LIMS can handle some time-consuming tasks for lab technicians. For example, it can assign functions to researchers or show them where to find a sample. LIMS also helps technicians manage lab inventory, which can be tricky and take time. With LIMS, managing inventory and equipment becomes easier.
• Connectivity. A LIMS works well with other lab tools. It can connect to different instruments, making it easier to manage data. This helps labs keep information safe and saves time when getting data from other places.
• Cost-cutting. Going digital saves time and uses less paper. It becomes easier to find information and save money on supplies. Labs don’t need to keep as much paper, which cuts down on storage costs and trash removal fees.

Benefits of LIMS for respective lab employees:

Workflow Management

Scientists are the main winners when lab workflows become smoother. Automation takes many tasks off their plates, making their jobs easier. LIMS reduces the need for manual steps, which helps lower mistakes. By going digital, scientists can spend less time on paperwork and more time on research. LIMS also gives them clear steps to follow, which helps them make fewer mistakes.

Following reliable SOPs also makes lab managers’ jobs easier. LIMS helps manage resources better, making inventory management much less complicated and time-consuming.

Sample Management

It allows managers to track tasks and see how tools and materials connect to samples.

LIMS helps maintain product quality by speeding up releases and preventing bad recalls.

Scientific Data Management

Having backup and recovery options eliminates the need for internal data servers. Lab managers like LIMS provide safe data management and keep data accurate.

Also, LIMS removes the need for manual data entry, making things easier for lab workers. They can access data and backups.

Collaboration

LIMS lets workers share data so everyone can get the needed information immediately.

IT managers like using connected systems that help them share information.

Lab managers also enjoy easy data sharing within the lab and fast delivery of results.

Data Visualization

LIMS provides essential data that helps executives and lab managers review information.

Executives can view key performance indicators (KPIs) and business activities. Lab managers can also access lab and production data.

Examples of a Laboratory Information System

Clinical Laboratory Information Systems.

These common LISs manage patient sample data and clinical lab test results. They keep test results accurate and help get patient information for fast diagnoses.

Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems.

These systems manage data about tissue samples like biopsies in pathology labs. They help pathologists track samples, record findings, and make reports, improving accuracy.

Blood Bank Laboratory Information Systems.

These systems manage blood products and donor information, ensuring safe blood for transfusions. Features include managing donors and blood types and tracking blood use. This helps avoid mistakes and lower waste.

Molecular Laboratory Information Systems.

These LISs manage data for genetic testing and sequencing. They look at genetic data and make reports. It assists in personalized medicine with sample tracking and testing tools.

Microbiology Laboratory Information Systems.

It focuses on microbiology labs, managing data about cultures and identifying microbes. It tracks samples and automates testing, helping with infection control and patient care.

Chemistry and Hematology Laboratory Information Systems.

It manages data for blood tests, making it easier to analyze samples and create reports. Features include connecting to machines and checking quality, ensuring timely diagnoses and care.

Quality Control Laboratory Information Systems.

They check the quality of lab testing, track performance, and ensure safety standards. They manage skill tests and track machine checks, helping labs stay accurate and safe.

Research Laboratory Information Systems.

Support labs in tracking experiments and results, promoting teamwork and data sharing. Features include planning experiments and showing data, helping researchers make discoveries.

Conclusion

Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS) help labs track samples and data. They solve problems by doing things by hand, like mistakes and waiting too long. It simplifies keeping records and writing reports, making everything faster and more accurate.

LIMS are easy to set up and change as your lab grows. They follow samples from when they arrive until you get rid of them. They work well with other tools, making it easier to share information. They help businesses that make medicine and food and keep the environment safe. LIMS helps labs work better, correct the information, and finish tasks immediately.

References

CloudLIMS. (2024, July 18). What is a LIMS (Laboratory Information Management System)?: Definition, Purpose, & Benefits of LIMS. CloudLIMS. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://cloudlims.com/what-is-a-lims/

Covetus. (2021, March 2). Significance & Benefits of Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS) | Covetus Technologies Pvt Ltd. Covetus, LLC. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.covetus.com/blog/significance-benefits-of-laboratory- information-management-system-lims

IDBS. (n.d.). What is a LIMS? – Laboratory Information Management System. IDBS. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.idbs.com/what-is-a-lims/

Illumina. (n.d.). Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS) | For genomics labs. Illumina. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.illumina.com/informatics/infrastructure-pipeline-setup/lims.html

Prolis. (n.d.). Different Types of Laboratory Information Systems | Prolis. Prolis LIS. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.prolisphere.com/different- types-of-laboratory-information-systems/

Uncountable. (2023, April 5). 5 Types of Information That Should Be Stored in a LIMS Platform. Uncountable. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.uncountable.com/resources/5-types-of-information-that-should- be-stored-in-a-laboratory-information-management-system-lims

Written by Franchezka Samia Teves

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Laboratory Information System (LIS) is a healthcare software solution. The system deals with processing, recording, and storing patient data. It allows providers and laboratory professionals to have quality control and enhanced workflow.

LIS is used in an array of laboratory work that requires data. This includes receiving and tracking test orders and transmitting results to an EHR. An Electronic Health Record (EHR) is a digital record of a patient’s medical details. This records the medical history, physical examination, investigation, and patient treatment.

LIS plays a vital role in modern healthcare. It ensures effective communication between various departments in a medical facility. It is considered as the “backbone” of the healthcare system. Healthcare professionals rely on patient data to administer the right treatments and medicines.

There must be proper documentation of patient data and information to avoid errors. The role of LIS is paramount in this aspect as proof of a patient’s current or past records.

Through the years, record-keeping has evolved from manual/written data to digital data. Now, it is made easy through the use of LIS. Aside from a hassle-free record system, it also prevents the loss of lab records. Unlike manual or written data, the use of LIS enables easy tracking and transmission of data.

The Laboratory Information System will be of great help to doctors. This is where they base their medical evaluations and reviews of the patient. Here are some of the significant purposes of LIS:

• Enhanced Patient Care

Through LIS, healthcare providers have complete access to updated patient information and data. This enables them to provide optimal and personalized care and timely interventions. Enhanced patient care goes beyond traditional medical treatment and provides additional services.

• Easy Workflow

LIS will reduce manual labor within the laboratory since digital record-keeping is integrated. This will increase work efficiency, organize data, and minimize the risk of errors. Through automation of certain tasks, it will speed up the work of lab technicians.

• Effective Communication and Collaboration

Hospitals, laboratories, and different departments within a healthcare facility share data information. The use of LIS will foster good communication and collaboration between colleagues. It also enables good decision-making that will ensure thorough and accurate conclusions. When consulting complex cases, LIS will allow interactions between colleagues to be faster and more productive.

• Adapting to Future Needs

Laboratories have specific needs that depend on the demands of healthcare. LIS allows customization that will be tailored to the needs of the lab. This will ensure that the lab adapts to new technologies, tests, and requirements. LIS can progress together with the evolving healthcare demands.

With this, LIS will not only keep up with the pace of current demands. It will also pave the way for future decisions to be made faster and more accurately, leading to better outcomes.

What are the major components of a laboratory information system? 

A laboratory information system is a convenient way to track samples before collection. You may also use it during and after collection. It not only aids in sample collection and processing but also aids in report generation. Furthermore, it monitors the well-being of the patients in hospitals and clinics. 

There are three major functioning components of LIS:

• Sample tracking

It is the main component of LIS. The samples are the most valuable possession of any clinical laboratory. It usually starts with case identification, where there is a unique ID. It contains the name of the patient and the department where he or she is admitted or confined.

It has the sample type, date-batch number, and volume in the software. A good example is a single sample that is processed in the different parts of the laboratory. To help it reach its analysis destination, all the details are written in an electronic format.

This way, using a sample code makes it easier for the laboratory personnel to know the status of a sample. Then, the sample tracker provides a concise set of results about all the tests performed.

• Protocol Implementation

This is another component of LIS that consists of steps, processes, and procedures. It improves the standard of the laboratory workflow. In a similar manner, the system helps generate standard operating procedures (SOP).

It is very important to consider digitizing all the steps for processing samples. It also yields accurate result interpretation. The SOP helps maintain consistency in sample processing. This is very true even though different laboratory personnel are conducting the tests.

Likewise, LIS helps provide a strict protocol for maintaining quality tests. It gives visibility based on authorization and helps generate concise results. After this, it sends them to the approval queue and then distributes them as per the requirement.

• Storage Management

The last component of the LIS is managing sample storage. Samples with common batch numbers or collection dates are grouped. This is to aid in proper storage for future laboratory tests.

The batch sample is stored in the same vessel, box, or shelf rack. In addition, the system identifies where the rack is located either in a freezer or room. For you to find the samples right away in a busy laboratory, a hierarchy of storage is essential. It helps maintain organized and efficient productivity in the work area.

What is the advantage of using LIMS? 

Lab Information Management System (LIMS) helps manage large amounts of samples and data. Over the years, countless developments have been made in the software. Thus, its capabilities have evolved and can be used in various laboratory management.

In today’s world, LIMS can now be used to generate and track reports and manage inventory. LIMS can also reduce the risk of human errors as it eliminates manual sample tracking.

Here are some of the Advantages of using LIMS:

• Enhanced Efficiency, Data Storage and Entry

Through LIMS, a laboratory can run paperless. Through automation, laboratory work becomes quick and more systematic, minimizing the turnaround times.

In manual lab work, recording samples is quite tasking without barcodes. The sample is manually entered throughout the test analysis. LIMS solves this problem by allowing important information to be digitally entered.

In cases where data is lost through human error, it can easily be retrieved with LIMS. It will also prevent the use of outdated instruments for analytical testing. It ensures the accuracy and quality of test results.

• Improved Inventory Management and Storage Costs

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a technology used to track items. In lab inventory management, RFID and barcodes are now used as part of LIMS. It automates the tracking of samples, minimizing the tedious manual data entry.

Keeping track of samples and managing plates will be easier, reducing significant delays. Through LIMS, effective lab inventory management is made possible. Tracking the expiration dates of reagents will minimize errors in the lab.

In today’s world, data storage costs are on the rise, along with the current inflation. Implementing the LIMS system in the laboratory will reduce data storage costs in many ways. It can reduce the amount of duplicated data in different locations. It will also compress data to take up less space and remove unnecessary information.

LIMS will also reduce the need for physical storage as it stores data electronically. It does not need to be printed out; therefore, reducing labor costs. If data is lost, LIMS can easily retrieve data and the lab will no longer pay for costly data retrieval services.

What is the difference between LIS and LIMS? 

The Laboratory Information System is a generic term for a wide range of software. It manages every aspect of laboratory operations. For example, regulatory compliance, data management, and document and media tracking.

It is also a good resource for planning and quality assurance. Such systems serve to manage and integrate clinical information. This is to promote the productivity of laboratory operations, thereby improving patient care.

Laboratory Information Management Systems have a more general definition. This means that LIS caters to clinical laboratories only. LIMS is a broader application used in all types of laboratory settings. It includes research and scientific ones.

Scientific laboratories and researchers use this software to track experiments and sample orders. It is also used for data analysis, regulatory compliance, and regional connections. Additional functions include automation of workflows and audit trails. Data mining tools are often incorporated into LIMS to support complex processes.

In short, LIS is intentional only for the clinical laboratory environment. This is for the management of patient data and laboratory operations.

LIMS, on the other hand, addresses a much wider variety of environments. For example, research and scientific laboratories. It provides additional sophisticated capabilities for furthering operational efficiency and research.

How are LIMS used to record and store patient results? 

LIMS has been widely used in laboratories since the evolution of technology. It digitally records and tracks all data associated with lab samples. To do this, LIMS allows the use of barcodes for easy access and entry of data, especially patient results.

LIMS will assign a unique identifier to the sample that will be used for the entire tracking process. Relevant information must be recorded in the system for data accuracy. As the sample goes through various stages of testing, LIMS will track its progress.

LIMS will capture the data directly from the lab instruments during sample testing. This will be automatically logged in the LIMS, reducing manual entries. After this, the LIMS will do the necessary calculations, validations, and storage of data securely.

LIMS makes sure that during the testing process, quality control measures are strictly followed. It ensures that the whole testing process complies with the regulatory standards.

After the sample testing, LIMS will generate a report based on the data collected. Once the data has been processed and results have been reported, LIMS will archive the data for easy retrieval and access.

In conclusion, LIMS is very important in the laboratory to function in an organized manner. Through LIMS, standardization of workflow and procedures will reduce the hassle of laboratory work.

It will also assure the patients that their records are well-managed. Since LIMS allows checking of data errors regularly, there is an additional sense of security.

It is indeed a great way of making laboratory work more effective and efficient. Overall, LIMS allows the laboratory to meet the rising demands of the healthcare industry.

References

Orchard Software. (2023, October 6). What is LIS Software and How Does it Work? | Orchard Software. https://www.orchardsoft.com/resources/learn-about-lis/

Thomas, J. (2009). Medical records and issues in negligence. Indian Journal of Urology, 25(3), 384. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-1591.56208

Laboratory Information Systems | LIS in Healthcare | Laboratory Information System Software | Best Laboratory Information System Software | Pathology Lab Management | LIS Lab. (n.d.). https://www.ligolab.com/post/transforming-patient-care-the-power-of-laboratory-information-systems-lis-in-healthcare

How Lab Information Systems Accelerate Faster Decision-Making. (n.d.). NovoPath. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.novopath.com/resources/blog/how-lab-information-systems-accelerate-faster-decision-making/#:~:text=Lab%20information%20systems%20foster%20a,to%20work%20together%20more%20effectively.

Wynter, F. (2023, December 15). What is a LIMS (Laboratory Information Management System)? Automata. https://automata.tech/automation-guides/what-is-a-lims-laboratory-information-management-system/

Admin. (2023, June 23). Advantages and benefits of a LIMS. FreeLIMS. https://freelims.org/advantages-of-a-lims/#:~:text=A%20LIMS%20reduces%20time%20spent,standards%20at%20the%20same%20time.

10 Ways LIMS helps you control inventory management costs. (n.d.). https://genemod.net/blog/10-ways-lims-helps-you-control-inventory-management-costs#:~:text=LIMS%20inventory%20management%20automates%20tracking,the%20risk%20of%20human%20error.

Prolis. (2023, February 16). Leveraging a LIMS to reduce data storage costs. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/leveraging-lims-reduce-data-storage-costs-

Shrestha, A., & Shrestha, A. (2022, August 31). Laboratory Information System (LIS). Microbe Online. https://microbeonline.com/laboratory-information-system-lis/

How a LIMS helps labs ensure data security and integrity | QBench Cloud-Based LIMS. (n.d.). https://qbench.com/blog/how-a-lims-helps-labs-ensure-data-security-and-integrity#:~:text=Here%20are%20the%20top%20ways,the%20risk%20of%20data%20breaches.

Team, T. (2024, February 5). Streamlining your lab operation: The 5 Advantages of using a LIMS System – Teselagen. Teselagen. https://teselagen.com/blog/5-advantages-of-using-a-lims-system/

Holland, B. (2024, August 27). How does a LIMS work? Unlocking the power of laboratory information management systems. LabLynx. https://www.lablynx.com/resources/articles/how-does-a-lims-work/#:~:text=During%20testing%2C%20the%20LIMS%20captures,data%2C%20and%20stores%20it%20securely.

Written by Jeanne Lourdes S. Subrado

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

In today’s digital age, information systems now handle tasks we used to do by hand. These systems store, collect, process, and disseminate information through computer-based tools. As you read this article, your device is an information system designed to access data like this easily!

These systems aim to aid in processing data more efficiently than manual methods. For instance, the machine you see at the cashier counter helps process the customer’s total payment, leading to quick accommodation of all consumers. It establishes a fast-paced environment and improves customer satisfaction.

Another example is the apps or software you use to encode documents. These systems store data and allow access at any time and place. Sending someone a link to the papers automatically grants access which addresses the concern of having to physical travel to send it.

Therefore, its usage is cost-effective and flexible!

Why is it important to study information systems? 

The rise of technology pushes us to learn the system since our surroundings are operated mainly by it. It is essential to study its concepts to understand how it will help you, learn to balance its pros and cons, advance your career, and help in further innovation and development.

• To understand how it will help you

Some manual tasks, such as shopping, banking, and payments, are now operated digitally. Online payments allow payment transactions through the comfort of our electronic devices.

One way of making online payments is by linking your bank account to online shopping apps, which helps with fast and instant transactions. It will not require you to pay face-to-face once your order is delivered.

• Balance the pros and cons

In correlation to the first point, online payments are beneficial when the transaction location is far. Yet, it may fall at risk due to identity theft, where outsiders use your data to withdraw money from your bank account.

However, it’s important to note that security measures are present during online payments; reviewing its drawbacks helps decide which is best and safe for your needs.

• Career opportunities

Most jobs seek technology experts, primarily because most companies rely on technology. Information systems are vital in producing productivity in the workplace. Knowledge of these systems widens your career and opportunities, including IT and business.

Studying its fundamentals can help enhance your knowledge of the field, improve time efficiency, and establish a well-rounded environment with your career path.

• Innovation and development

With the current knowledge and inventions, we have the strength to improve information systems to address problems further. An example is connected inhalers in healthcare to help patients remember and track dosage to maintain a healthy schedule. Further innovations may help save lives in the future.

What are the benefits of information systems? 

Information system automates manual processes, improve productivity and flexibility, streamline processes, and are cost-effective.

• Automate manual processes 

Manual data processing is time-consuming, yet machines help in minimizing this problem.

For example, cash registers effectively accommodate all customers quickly. The cashier doesn’t need to add all the services or products you bought manually; the machine will automatically generate the total cost of your payment, saving time and speeding up the process, creating a manageable market workflow.

• Improve productivity 

Information systems allow you to perform several tasks at a time. Some hospitals offer appointment websites so patients don’t have to travel to get an appointment from the secretary. Patients can feasibly book an appointment and travel when it’s their turn for check-ups, which maximizes time and energy.

Moreover, health workers can benefit from it, helping them focus on other tasks and simultaneously manage different objectives.

• Flexible

Encoding data using applications and machines allows you to update your work anytime. It is also open to changes while encoding, compared to manual methods, where you must rewrite or erase your errors.

These systems are also accessible to others. You can access your work on other devices or machines as well!

• Streamline processes

Since data is digitized, monitoring each process is easier and more convenient.

In clinical laboratories, medical technologists store patient data in a computer where patients’ medical history is stored. Based on their medical history, each shows whether the patient’s condition has improved or worsened.

This way, it is also beneficial for the health worker to track the state of numerous patients in the hospital.

• Cost-effective

Google Meet is an example of an application that hosts a digital meeting if members cannot attend physically. It reduces travel costs, and members can quickly participate in the meeting anywhere through their devices.

Additionally, encoding documents through software and applications reduces costs since you don’t have to buy pens, papers, staplers, and other materials to write the document. You will encode the document and automatically access it through your device.

What is the most important characteristic of an information system? 

While information systems offer several traits,  how you use them determines their most important characteristic. Yet, one common characteristic is automation. The primary goal of creating the system is to lessen the cons of using manual methods in our everyday lives.

Since data is automated, it processes information quickly, addressing the drawbacks of manual processing like time consumption, minimized flexibility, less security, and cost.

For healthcare, security is a top priority in protecting the personal data of patients and the hospital. Banks must also achieve the accuracy of their monetary values to gain reliability.

What the organization lacks defines the vital traits needed for the system.

Why do organizations need an information system? 

Information systems help manage information, secure data, send and collaborate meetings and documents, provide service to the public, manage the workforce more efficiently, and improve time consumption in organizations.

With its aid, service is accurate and readily available, with accurate decision-making, planning, and results.

• For healthcare, it assists in achieving data management and efficiency, considering the daily heavy load of patient data.

CT and MRI scans in the health setting detect certain diseases and injuries. Electrocardiograms (ECG) are also essential to evaluate the heart’s rhythm.

• For businesses, it is used to carry out and manage operations, interact with customers, achieve better customer service, and compete in the marketplace, leading to productivity.

• It helps corporations reach their potential customers with targeted messages over the web, process financial accounts, and manage the workforce.

• The government uses it to provide services cost-effectively to citizens and gather taxes.

What is an example of an information system? 

Some examples include devices, navigation systems, point-of-sale (POS) systems, e-wallet systems, digital goods and online services, medical devices, online shopping and banking, fitness trackers, and document editing apps.

•  Devices

Smartphones, laptops, smart watches, tablets, and televisions are standard devices we use every day.

Smartphones are one of the most portable and readily accessible devices, containing almost everything you need, from communication, calendars, social media, e-books, streaming services, weather apps, flashlights, and calculators.

According to 2024 global statistics, approximately 7.21 billion smartphones are present worldwide, which accounts for 90% of the 8 billion global population. Additionally, 7.69 billion smartphone subscriptions are expected by 2027, with over 95% of teens gaining access to cellphones currently.

With most people owning smartphones, many can access information systems daily with this portable device. However, it also has its drawbacks among users, one of which is phone addiction.

Since information is easily accessible online, it is difficult to lift the addiction to our smartphones. More importantly, social media usage increased throughout the years, with 51.8% of people using social media apps because of boredom. The cons of using smart devices are due to their easily accessible traits.

• Advanced navigation system

Application software like Google Maps checks your location and directs your desired destination. It is available on smartphones and desktops,  offering various features such as street view language-friendliness and providing essential details of your desired location.

Since Google Maps shows details of your desired location, it encourages users to visit places that interest them by seeing the provided contact information, images of your business, and time of opening and closing. Lastly, you can also leave a review for other users to see.

•  Point-of-sale (POS) system

This system assists customers in paying for products and services automatically from the store or market. An example is the machine (cash register) that cashiers use when you make a payment. It helps process payments and print receipts.

It ensures accurate processing of data by tracking payment records and reducing errors. It manages the pay scheme much more efficiently and promotes customer satisfaction in the workforce.

• E-wallet systems

E-wallets or digital wallets store money electronically. These systems offer bill payments, money transfers, online shopping, and overseas transactions like PayPal. Another typical example is Gcash, a digital wallet system among Filipinos.

It’s a safe way of transaction if you have a problem carrying large amounts of money or transferring bills in different locations. By using your desired devices, you can manipulate the usage of your money with the comfort of your device.

• Digital goods and online services

Digital goods include music and e-books, while online services include Google Chrome.

For students, e-books are helpful because they don’t have to buy physical books to access learning. E-books are cost-efficient alternatives since they are primarily free online.

• Medical Devices

CT and MRI scans help identify treatment and diagnosis by viewing your internal body structure. These are vital improvements in the healthcare field as they satisfy the goal of patient care and provide adequate help for the lives of those suffering.

• Online shopping

These system were helpful during the pandemic since people were not allowed to go outside. Examples are Shoppee, Shein, Amazon, and Lazada which serves as digital alternatives for physical stores.

The advantage of using this is that product prices are sometimes much lower compared to physical stores. However, the system will still include the shipping fee in your payment.

This system is a quick and easy way to find items not seen in physical stores. Yet, it will take weeks or months (if overseas) to arrive.

• Online Banking

This system allows you to perform bank transactions on the internet. It’s a convenient way of transacting money from the comfort of your home or any location without going to the bank. You can also link your bank account when shopping online, so you don’t have to pay physically.

• Fitness trackers

This system monitors your fitness schedule and determines if you have major or minor improvements based on past sessions. Examples are workout apps. The system is also available on your devices; it is a convenient way of monitoring health issues if you’re dealing with one.

• Document Editing App

Google Docs, WPS, and Word-Processing software store and manage documents digitally. Compared to pen and paper, you can edit, add images, spell-check, and update your records anytime. You can easily connect your documents to other systems or devices, making it a flexible alternative to manual methods.

Why are people the most important part of an information system? 

People are the most crucial part since they are the ones who input and interpret data, operate and manage it, and ensure ethical considerations when using the system.

•  Input and interpret data

In any information system, they don’t automatically encode the data independently. They are responsible for processing the data input only, and the people will interpret it.

For instance, Google Meet will not automatically host the meeting for you. You have to input the necessary data to make the meeting, and Google Meet will process and start the meeting.  

Since people are the ones who input the data, errors and misinterpretations are not caused by the information system but by a mistake in data input. That’s why it’s essential to have well-trained professionals operating vital systems such as medical devices to ensure accurate interpretations of data.

• Operate and manage

People are also responsible for ensuring that these systems do what they should. They are accountable for fixing malfunctions and ensuring they operate well when used.

• Ensure ethical considerations

Data privacy is one of the crucial ethical considerations. Humans must ensure that such systems are used responsibly without abusing user’s privacy and data. People are the ones who operate security management among systems.

In healthcare, there have been numerous cases where workers take advantage of their work to gather patient data and commit fraudulent actions. Security and reliability depend solely on the people’s intentions since they can ensure that data is protected.

References

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4 Benefits of Fitness Trackers. Sutter Health. (n.d.). https://www.

sutterhealth.org/health/fitness/4-health-benefits-of-fitness-trackers.

Brook, C. (2024, August 22). What is Health Information System? Digital Guardian. https://tinyurl.com/4xbw7p55.

Bank of America (n.d.). How does Bank of America protect my accounts and identity?  https://tinyurl.com/3xuyncfv.

[Charlie Love]. (2013, April 1). 1 – What is an Information System [Video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/Qujsd4vkqFI?si=BknDEb3mD9KQCOuH.

ECPI University. (n.d.). Reasons Why Information Systems Are Important for Business Today. ECPI University. https://www.ecpi.edu/blog/reasons-why-information-systems-are-important-for-business-today.

5 Examples of Smart Technology in Healthcare. (2024, February 8). Impactmybiz. https://www.impactmybiz.com/blog/smart-technology-in-healthcare/.

“Find the Perfect Document Editing App for Your Writing Tasks | Rated #1”. (n.d.). LingoEdit Team. https://tinyurl.com/2fzp2s3h.

Goodman, K.W., & Miller, R.A. 10 Ethics and Health Informatics: Users, Standards, and Outcomes. 380-402.  https://drive.google.com/file/d/1yK6dSF85

oluEsI23K6xtinRCESACxCm_/view?usp=sharing.

Howarth, J. (2024, June 4). Time Spent Using Smartphones (2024 Statistics). Exploding Topics. https://explodingtopics.com/blog/smartphone-usage-stats#time-spent-on-smartphones.

Howarth, J. (2024, June 13). How Many People Own Smartphones? (2024-2029). Exploding Topics. https://explodingtopics.com/blog/smartphone-stats#number-of-smartphones.

How Google Maps Can Benefit Your Business. (n.d.). Evolve Systems. https://evolve-systems.com/blog/how-google-maps-can-benefit-your-business/.

Minute Lessons by Victor]. (2021, June 29). Introduction to Information Systems [Video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/g8059-8QDNk?si=ocxRCJq9ab0I1vti.

Patrick, N. (2015). Introduction to Management Information System [Powerpoint Slides]. https://slideplayer.com/slide/5829398/#google_vignette.

Schwann, P. (n.d.). Devices and Machinery in the Medical Field. Open Text Books. https://opentextbooks.clemson.edu/sts1010fidlerfall2021/chapter/devices-in-the-medical-field/.

The 6 Most Popular Types of Information Systems and Their Applications. (2024, August 30). Simplilearn. https://www.simplilearn.com/types-of-information-systems-and-applications-article.

What are the advantages of Google Maps? (n.d.). Redshark. https://www.redsharkdigital.com/faqs/what-are-the-advantages-of-google-maps/.

Zimlich, R. (2023, March 14). CT (Computed Tomography) Scan. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/ct-scan.

Written by Athea Bianca Geonigo

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

The study of the body’s structure is known as anatomy. It is a field of study that looks into the bones, organs, tissues, and cells found in both humans and animals. 

The average human body has 37.2 trillion cells, of which there are currently over 200 known varieties. There are about 640 identified muscles in the human body. The number may vary by how they are categorized. 

The 10 Body Systems: 

To better explain how body parts work, anatomy experts (or anatomists) often divide the body into ten systems. 

• Skeletal system is your body’s framework supporting your body. It creates blood cells, gives your body form, permits movement, shields your organs, and stores minerals. (bones, cartilage, and joints) 

• Muscular system consists of muscle fibers, which are specialized cells. They are in charge of controlling your movement and are affixed to your bones, internal organs, and blood vessels. (muscle) 

• Nervous system transmits information from your brain to your body. (brain and nerves) 

• Respiratory system absorbs oxygen from the air we breathe and releases carbon dioxide that isn’t needed. (lungs and trachea) 

• Cardiovascular system provides nutrition and oxygen to your body’s organs, enabling them to perform their functions. (heart, arteries, veins, and blood) 

• Lymphatic system balances your bodily fluid levels and protects your body from illnesses. (bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen) 
• Endocrine system produces hormones and releases them straight into the bloodstream, allowing them to reach all of your body’s tissues and organs. (thyroid, pituitary, and adrenal glands) 

• Reproductive system produces hormones, which are in charge of your menstruation, sexual activity, and fertility. (uterus, ovaries, penis, and testicles) 462 

• Digestive system breaks down the meals you eat into their most basic forms, such as fatty acids (which make up lipids), glucose (sugars), or amino acids (which make up protein). (mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines) 
• Urinary system produces urine as a waste byproduct and filters blood. (kidneys and bladder) 

Medical practitioners must use anatomical knowledge in their practice. Accurate diagnosis, effective treatment, and surgical skills depend on it. 

Any branch of medical science requires a solid understanding of anatomy before practicing. We must identify the body’s dysfunctional organs. Then, we should link symptoms to chronic illness. This will help in making the right diagnosis. 

In clinical settings, medical practitioners use their anatomical knowledge. They interpret imaging data, identify problems, and communicate with patients and other providers. Surgeons, in particular, rely on their anatomical knowledge for complex surgeries. It helps them lower risks and improve patient outcomes. 

Medical Research 

It is essential for medical research and development and clinical practice. Anatomical structure analysis is often used in research investigations to understand illness mechanisms better, create new remedies, and progress medical technology. Its contribution to research is essential for advancing change and advancement in the medical industry. Significant discoveries and medical progress would be restricted without a comprehensive comprehension of anatomy. 

Clinical Application 

In the course of their work, doctors deal with a wide range of illnesses and injuries. Doctors who possess a firm grasp of anatomy are better equipped to do comprehensive physical examinations, spot anomalies, and diagnose the underlying cause of symptoms. An expert in anatomy, for example, can locate a tumor or a broken bone with great accuracy, enabling the development of effective treatment strategies. 

Surgical Expertise 

Anatomy is crucial knowledge for those who want to become surgeons. During surgery, tissues and organs must be precisely manipulated; any mistake could have serious repercussions for the patient. Surgeons can safely navigate complex anatomical structures, plan procedures with greater efficiency, and reduce procedural risks when they possess a solid foundation in anatomy. 

Understanding Physiology and Pathology 

The three are closely related concepts. Whereas pathology studies the alterations brought about by disease processes, physiology investigates the roles of various anatomical components. Understanding the complexity of physiology and pathology becomes much more difficult in the absence of a solid anatomical foundation. 

Furthermore, anatomy serves purposes beyond the realm of medicine. Medical researchers seek to improve medicine. They use advanced treatments and study anatomy to better understand disorders. Knowledge of anatomy helps with diagnostic imaging, like MRIs and X-rays. It allows doctors to find issues and create effective treatment plans. 

What is the importance of learning the language of anatomy? 

Since anatomy forms the foundation for medical practice and other health-related courses, students majoring in health sciences must possess a solid grasp of fundamental anatomical terminology. With cutting-edge imaging methods or a clinical examination, a professional can better comprehend a patient’s condition thanks to their anatomy expertise. 

Understanding anatomical words and placing them in their proper context—providing insight into how the human body works in both health and disease—is just as important as learning the terms themselves. Health practitioners can communicate accurately with one another domestically and globally when they precisely employ anatomical terminology. 

It is impossible to talk about or precisely document aberrant joint or muscle function, changes in the organs’ positions, or the precise location of tumors or edema without anatomical terminology. Thus, mastering solid concepts and anatomical language should lead to the capacity to interpret a clinical observation accurately. 

What language does the word “Anatomy” come from? 

The Greek language is where the word “anatomy” originated. The word comes from the Greek word “anatome” (ἀνατoμή), which means “dissection” or “cutting up.” It is a compound word made up of the words “ana-,” which means “up” or “apart,” and “tome,” which means “cutting.” 

This reflects the ancient practice of dissecting bodies to study their structure, which forms the basis of the field of anatomy. 

Why is it important that we have a universal language of anatomy? 

The significance of using universal language when talking about movements, anatomical planes, and anatomical position so that the patient or client and the expert may both comprehend and communicate with ease. 

This makes it less likely that people will misinterpret or confuse one another. The capacity to understand the structure and placement of the body’s position and planes is aided by the universal language of anatomical movement. 

Over the ages, anatomy has developed a uniform system of technical words to annotate thousands of body parts. Gaspard Bauhin (1560–1624) introduced Latin anatomical nomenclature in the sixteenth century. Without his invention, many more words would be required to refer to different body parts. Rather than creating a word to describe every structure and component, the nomenclature may clearly and alone specify each unique structure. 

Who was the first person to study anatomy? 

Herophilus, a physician from Alexandria who is frequently referred to as “The Father of Anatomy”, was born in Chalcedon, Bithynia, around 335 BC and passed away in 280 BC. Herophilus was a pioneer of public dissections on human cadavers. 

He was a Greek physician who investigated the nerve trunks, dura mater sinuses, and brain ventricles. He also checked the pancreas, liver, salivary glands, eyes, and both sexes’ sexual organs. He gave the prostate and duodenum names. 

Herophilus studied under Hippocrates, who promoted the healing properties of medications, dietetics, and gymnastics while emphasizing the balancing of bodily fluids. He was the first to use a water clock to measure the pulse. 

Early History and Other Notable Anatomists 

In 300 BC, an anatomy school was established in Alexandria, Egypt. Alessandra Giliani was the first woman to be documented as practicing anatomy and pathology in the 1300s, but there were probably many more before her. Women have historically practiced medicine and midwifery. 

There have also been artists among anatomists. Leonardo Da Vinci created incredible works of art that brought together science and the arts to help illustrate what was within the body. Another Italian artist and anatomist was Anna Morandi Manzolini. She worked in her home laboratory in the 1700s, lecturing, writing about organs, and making intricate wax models. 

What is the best way to understand anatomy? 

Visualization and active learning strategies are among the best ways to learn anatomy. Participate in the content by actively reading lecture notes or textbooks rather than just passively reading them. To improve your comprehension, make use of visual aids like interactive applications, illustrations, and anatomical models. 

Here are some effective methods for understanding Anatomy: 

• Anatomical Terminologies and Knowing the Basics. Start your study by becoming familiar with the fundamental ideas and terms related to anatomy. Before moving on to more complicated subjects, lay a solid foundation by becoming familiar with the body systems, important structures, and anatomical terminology. 

• Visual Materials and Aids. With the use of several visual aids, learn anatomy. Visual aids, such as atlases, diagrams, 2D pictures, 3D materials, and movies, can significantly alter an educational process. 

• Active Recall. Use the proven study method of active recall. It is better than just repeating things. It helps you actively retrieve newly learned material by stimulating your brain. This not only makes studying less interesting, but it also helps you retain the material better for your next exam or quiz. 

• Quizzes and Testing Your Knowledge. Test your knowledge with a variety of quizzes to put what you’ve learned into practice. Tests are a useful tool since they help you remember all you’ve studied. Additionally, they assist you in determining what areas you still need to fill in while studying anatomy and how well-versed you are in the subject. 

• Study in Groups and Peer Teaching. Studying with others may be enjoyable and very gratifying, in addition to being a great method to talk about the structures, exchange thoughts, and quiz one another. Furthermore, having a sounding board for suggestions can either improve your retention of the material or, on the other hand, highlight the areas that require more focus. Some claim that studying in groups even increases their motivation. 

• Find out your Learning Style. Try out as many various approaches and strategies as you can until you find one that works best for you and quickens your heartbeat. Sometimes, the finest results come from combining completely different study strategies. 
• Learn to love Anatomy. The best approach to quickly learning anatomy is to develop a passion for the subject. The way anatomy magically connects all the knowledge you’ve acquired will become apparent to you if you try to make connections between every piece of knowledge. Once you understand that, everything connects. 

It is normally taught over a specified amount of time, which can be anywhere from a few weeks to a whole semester, in a formal academic context like medical school or a comparable program. 

When studying independently, there can be a large range in how long it takes. The amount of time you can commit to studying, your past biology and related course knowledge, and the resources available to you will all play a role. Depending on how far you want to go with your studies, self- study may take several months to a year or longer. 

How can understanding anatomy can help you with your daily life? 

Understanding anatomy is crucial for a variety of reasons. It aids in your comprehension of the human body and how your own works. It also helps you comprehend why illnesses occur and what you can do to prevent them. Gaining knowledge about it will also enable us to better understand how our surroundings impact our health and how we can alter it for the better. 

Beyond the specific organs and systems, it’s critical to comprehend how the many components of the human body function as a whole. Human health is influenced by various systems, including the respiratory, lymphatic, and circulatory systems, and these interactions can be beneficial or detrimental. You can choose the best course of action for each patient and their unique set of symptoms by knowing how the systems work together. 

An understanding of anatomy and physiology will provide you with the fundamental knowledge needed to make the right choices and deliver precise, high-quality care. 

Conclusion 

In its broadest sense, anatomy is the study that examines the structure and evolution of living things. Since knowledge of human anatomy is essential to comprehending human physiology and pathological processes, it becomes required reading for all courses in the health field. 

It includes studying the anatomy of the human body and is crucial to medical education. It aids medical students in gaining a thorough understanding of the body’s anatomy, which serves as the foundation for illness diagnosis and treatment. 

References 

Stanford, K., Rutland, S., Sturrock, C. J., & Rutland, C. S. (2020). The importance of anatomy. 

Frontiers for Young Minds, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/frym.2020.546763 

Khan, I. A., & Singh, Y. (2023). The crucial role of anatomy in shaping competent medical doctors. 

ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374337716_The_Crucial_Role_of_Anatomy_in _

Body Systems, Functions, and organs – LabCE.com, Laboratory Continuing Education. (n.d.). https://www.labce.com/spg538250_body_systems_functions_and_organs.aspx?srsltid=A fmBOoomF8EQJyHSFCysll8QLuRzphsf0E16mcmoB8u56g0SFuf7ojdM 

Gonçalves, G. R., Cabral, R. H., & Grecco, L. H. (2020). The importance of Anatomical Terminology employment in health sciences. Revista Brasileira De Educação Médica, 44(4). https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-5271v44.4-20200180.ing 

Brazier, Y. (2023, April 25). Anatomy: A brief introduction. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248743 

Hill, R. (2024, April 12). Top Tips for Learning Anatomy – The Medic Portal. The Medic Portal. https://www.themedicportal.com/blog/top-tips-for-learning- anatomy/#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20most%20effective,apps%20to%20enhance%20 your%20understanding. 

Next, A. (n.d.). %s | Anatomy.app | Learn anatomy | 3D models, articles, and quizzes. https://anatomy.app/blog/how-to-learn-anatomy-fast 

TheStudentMedic. (2024, May 6). 5 Tips for Learning Anatomy: Techniques and Strategies for success. TheStudentMedic. https://www.thestudentmedic.com/post/5-tips-for-learning- anatomy-techniques-and-strategies-for-success 

Lumen Learning & OpenStax. (n.d.). Anatomical Terminology | Anatomy and Physiology i. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap1/chapter/anatomical- terminology/#:~:text=By%20using%20precise%20anatomical%20terminology,roots%2C %20prefixes%2C%20and%20suffixes. 

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). HeroPhilus | Biography, study of anatomy & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Herophilus 

Rhoads, J. (2024, February 14). The importance of an anatomy and physiology foundation. Corexcel. https://www.corexcel.com/blog/2017/04/17/the-importance-of-an-anatomy- and-physiology-foundation/ 

GS Group & GS Medical College & Hospital. (2023b, August 2). The significance of anatomy as a core subject in medical training and knowledge. GS Medical College & Hospital. https://gsmedicalcollege.in/the-significance-of-anatomy-as-a-core-subject-in-medical-training- and knowledge.php#:~:text=Anatomy%2C%20involving%20the%20study%20of,for%20diagnosing %20and%20treating%20diseases. 

Written by Jarixa Balbuena

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. los Baños, Ph.D.

What is the structure of the respiratory system? The respiratory system is a network of different organs that help you breathe. These organs work together to help with gas exchange, necessary for a functional body. It is also composed of structures that connect the organs. The respiratory system is also surrounded by layers of tissues and blood vessels. These structures help protect and support the respiratory system. 

The general function of the respiratory system is to bring oxygen to the body. Along with this process, waste products like carbon dioxide are also expelled. This complex process happens whenever you breathe in and out. Other functions of the respiratory system include: 

• Gas exchange. This refers to the swapping of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the bloodstream. The lungs exchange gases. This way, it delivers oxygen to the body while eliminating waste carbon dioxide. 

• Air filtration. The mucus and cilia in the respiratory tract filter out dust and particles from the air. This ensures that the air we breathe in is free from pathogens and is safe for circulation. 

• Sound production. The larynx or voice box contains the vocal cords that vibrate with air. Respiration enables air to pass along the larynx. The vibration of the vocal cords produces speech and vocal sounds. 

• Olfaction. When we breathe air in, tiny odor particles float up to our nose. Special smell sensors (olfactory nerves) in the nose send a message to your brain. The brain interprets this signal, telling us what the smell is like. 

• Regulation of blood pH. Excess carbon dioxide levels in the blood make it acidic. Through respiration, carbon dioxide exits the body. This mechanism helps regulate blood pH back to safe pH levels for the body. 

A variety of organs, muscles, and tissues make up the respiratory system. We can classify the structures of the system based on its functions and locations. Based on functionality, the system has two components: 

• The respiratory system conducts air through a series of passages. This pathway starts with the nasal cavities and pharynx. It continues down the trachea, bronchi, and then the bronchioles and terminal bronchioles. These structures make up the conducting component of the system. 

• The second component of the system is the respiratory component. This part is where gas exchange occurs firsthand. The respiratory bronchioles, ducts, and alveoli make up this part. 

The system also divides into upper and lower regions based on location. 

• The upper respiratory tract is the first part of our breathing journey. It starts with the nose and mouth where air comes in. After that, air travels through the nasal cavity, sinuses, and larynx. These structures help moisten, warm, and filter air before it proceeds inside the body. 

• The lower respiratory tract includes the trachea, bronchi, and lungs. These organs all work together to take the air to the alveoli in the lungs. It is in the alveoli where gas exchange occurs. 

The system also has a group of muscles that aid in the respiration process. These groups of muscles are the muscles of respiration. The diaphragm, intercostal muscles, and some accessory muscles make up this muscle group. They control the movement of air in and out of the body as you breathe. 

• The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle below the lungs. It separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. When it flattens and expands the chest cavity, it creates a vacuum. This vacuum pulls air into the lungs in a process called inhalation. As the diaphragm relaxes, the chest cavity also relaxes. The lungs push the air out from the body, known as exhalation. 

• Intercostal muscles are present between the ribs. These muscles lift the ribs during inhalation to accommodate the lung’s expansion. When the lungs relax during exhalation, these muscles help pull the ribcage downward. 

• Accessory muscles also aid in speech, singing, and breathing. The sternocleidomastoid in the neck helps during heavy breathing. This muscle also aids in forced exhalation such as in coughing or singing. 

What is the respiratory lining of the nasal cavity? 

The epithelium throughout most of the respiratory system is not a passive barrier. It plays a crucial role by being the first line of defense against germs and infections. It also helps keep the airways moist and prevent irritation. 

There are various histological layers within the respiratory system. 

Specialized linings and cells take charge of the respiratory tract. These cells ensure that the inhaled air is clean and safe. Some of these cells help us smell. Others ensure a healthy cell layer in the respiratory tract. Some cells aid in the functioning of the organs in the system. 

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines most of the respiratory tract. But, they are not found in the larynx and pharynx. This special lining acts like a double shield. It blocks germs and dust from entering. It also helps prevent infections and irritation. This epithelium has three types of cells present: 

• Goblet cells are responsible for mucus production. Mucus helps trap particles and pathogens. It also keeps a healthy level of moisture in the airways. This moisture prevents the respiratory tract from drying out and irritation. 

• Basal cells undergo constant division to replace other epithelial cells lining the airways. This ensures a healthy and functional layer of cells throughout the respiratory tract. 

• Cilia are millions of tiny hairs on the surface of respiratory airways. They beat in a constant wave-like motion. The rhythmic beating of cilia propels mucus and trapped particles towards the throat. This allows you to cough it out or swallow it. The mucus that reaches your stomach gets broken down. 

Alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) line the tiny, spongy air sacs throughout your lungs. These air sacs are the alveoli. The cells in this area take part in the easy diffusion of gases for gas exchange. There are two types of AECs: 

• Alveolar Epithelial Cell I (AEC I) covers the majority of the alveolar surface. These cells are vital in the gas exchange process around the alveoli. 

• Alveolar Epithelial Cell II (AEC II) contributes to lung defense. This alveolar epithelial cell is also subject to further studies. They also have regenerative potential. 

What is the main function of the respiratory epithelium in the nasal cavity? 

The respiratory epithelium acts as a guardian to the rest of the respiratory system. It filters, warms, and humidifies the air we breathe in before it reaches the lungs. It is important to warm the air we breathe in. 

The lungs work best when they receive air that is close to our body temperature. Cold air may cause our airways to constrict. Warming the air before gas exchange prevents this constriction. This ensures efficient oxygen delivery to the cells of the body. 

Warm and moist air prevents irritation to the delicate tissues lining the airways. The tissues moisten and warm the air to protect the respiratory linings from damage. The vasculature of the alveoli and capillaries is extra delicate. Warming the air lessens the likelihood of causing harm to these structures. 

The respiratory epithelium also relies on mucus and cilia to trap particles. This mucociliary clearance system is most effective at a specific consistency. Cold air dries out the mucus, making it thicker and stickier. This hinders the cilia’s ability to propel particles. 

These functions of the respiratory epithelium contribute to respiratory health. 

What is the histology of the olfactory mucosa? 

The olfactory mucosa has a specialized histological structure to detect smells. It is on the roof of the nasal cavity. This structure covers the superior nasal concha and the upper part of the nasal septum. The olfactory mucosa has two histological components: 

The olfactory epithelium is a pseudostratified columnar epithelium. It has three main cell types: 

• Olfactory Receptor Neurons (ORNs) are bipolar neurons. They extend to the epithelial surface and end in the cilia. These cilia contain receptors for smell molecules. 

• Supporting (Sustentacular) cells are columnar cells. They provide structural support, nourishment, and insulation to the olfactory receptor neurons. They also help detoxify harmful substances through their metabolic activities. 

• Basal cells are stem cells located at the base of the epithelium. They can differentiate into new olfactory receptor neurons or supporting cells. These cells maintain the regenerative capacity of the olfactory epithelium. 

The lamina propria is a connective tissue beneath the olfactory epithelium. It contains the following structures: 

• Bowman’s Glands. These glands produce mucus that is secreted onto the olfactory epithelium. The secreted mucus helps pick up the smell. It also flushes out old smells to detect new smells. 

• Blood Vessels and Nerves. The lamina propria is a vascularized structure. The blood vessels provide nutrients and support to the epithelial cells. 

This histological structure enables the olfactory mucosa to detect and process odorant molecules. This mechanism plays a crucial role in the sense of smell. 

What are the histological layers of the trachea? 

The trachea is also known as the windpipe. This tubular structure provides a passageway for air to enter and exit the lungs. The histological layers of the trachea are: 

• Mucosa. The mucosa is the innermost lining of the trachea. It has pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. This layer also contains goblet cells and the lamina propria. 

• Submucosa. This layer has a dense connective tissue compared to the lamina propria. It contains glands that produce a mixture of serous (watery) and mucous (viscous) fluids. These secretions help to moisten the air and trap particles to protect the airways. 

• Cartilaginous layer. The trachea has C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage. The cartilage rings provide structural support. They prevent the trachea from collapsing while allowing flexibility. 

• Adventitia. The outermost layer of the trachea is the adventitia. This layer consists of loose connective tissue. This layer also has blood vessels, nerves, and adipose tissue. It anchors the trachea to adjacent tissues and organs in the neck and thorax. 

What epithelium lines the bronchioles? 

Bronchioles are tiny branching tubes from the bronchi in your lungs. They are smaller than bronchi. This structure handles the delivery of air to the alveoli for gas exchange. The epithelium lining the bronchioles varies depending on the size of the bronchioles. 

Ciliated simple columnar epithelium lines the larger bronchioles. This epithelium type moves mucus and trapped particles upward. Once the trapped particles are in the bronchi and trachea, they expel these particles. 

Smaller bronchioles ( or terminal bronchioles) have ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium. The cilia continue to play a role in moving mucus and trapped particles. However, cilia in this part of the respiratory system are shorter. 

The respiratory bronchioles are the smallest branch. Simple cuboidal to simple squamous epithelia line this structure. The transition to simple epithelium facilitates gas exchange.

Where are the alveoli found? 

The alveoli are also known as air sacs. They are in alveolar ducts, sacs, and the terminal parts of the respiratory tract. Alveoli are also present in the lungs within the lung parenchyma. They are the primary sites for gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide. 

The lung parenchyma is a functional tissue of the lung involved in gas exchange. The lungs have respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs. All these structures have alveoli. 

There are also alveoli found at the terminal portions of the respiratory tract. This is the area where the bronchioles transition to alveolar ducts and sacs. Alveolar sacs are a group of alveoli clustered together. They open into alveolar ducts. 

Alveolar ducts are the passages that connect respiratory bronchioles to alveolar sacs. They also contain many alveoli along their walls. 

How many alveoli are in the lungs? 

The human lungs have about 300 to 500 million alveoli. This extensive network of alveoli provides a large surface area for gas exchange. An efficient functioning alveoli is crucial for acquiring oxygen and eliminating CO2 waste. 

The main function of the alveoli is to help the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body. The large number of alveoli provides a bigger surface area for this exchange to occur. Alveoli in the lungs has an estimated surface area of 70 to 100 square meters. These numbers are about the size of a tennis court. The large surface area allows for rapid diffusion of gases. 

Also, the vast number of alveoli helps the lungs adapt to sudden respiratory changes. The millions of alveoli ensure the body has a reserve to compensate for damaged ones. 

When many alveoli get damaged, surface area decreases. This leads to a decrease in the efficiency of gas exchange. Very few alveoli counts could also result in low O2 levels in the blood, known as hypoxemia. 

The body may attempt to compensate for low oxygen by increasing respiration. However these mechanisms may not be enough to maintain normal gas exchange over the long term. 

The alveoli in the lungs are essential for maximizing gas exchange. It also ensures efficient respiratory function. Decreased alveolar number or function can lead to impaired gas exchange. Respiratory insufficiency could also happen. This insufficiency could contribute to the development of various respiratory diseases and symptoms. 

Conclusion 

The respiratory system is a complex network of organs and tissues. It works day in and day out to keep us alive. Its primary function is to bring in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide, a waste product. This gas exchange happens in the millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli within the lungs. 

A healthy respiratory system is the foundation of our well-being. Neglecting it through unhealthy choices can lead to a lifetime of struggle. 

References 

American Lung Association. (2020, February 27). How Does the Respiratory System Work? https://www.lung.org/lung-health-diseases/how-lungs-work 

Britannica. (n.d.). Nasal cavity. https://www.britannica.com/science/nasal-cavity 

Britannica. (n.d.). Olfactory epithelium. https://www.britannica.com/science/olfactory-epithelium Carla S. Silva Teixeira, Nuno M.F.S.A. Cerqueira, António C. Silva Ferreira, Unraveling the 

Olfactory Sense: From the Gene to Odor Perception, Chemical Senses, Volume 41, Issue 2, February 2016, Pages 105–121, https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/bjv075 

Escada, Pedro & Lima, Carlos & Silva, José. (2009). The human olfactory mucosa. European archives of oto-rhino-laryngology : official journal of the European Federation of Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Societies (EUFOS) : affiliated with the German Society for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology – Head and Neck Surgery. 266. 1675-80. 10. 

Gartner, L. P., & Hiatt, J. L. (2020). Color Atlas and Text of Histology (7th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. Goncalves Ferreira, Miguel. (2020). Thermo-Mechanical Behaviour of Human Nasal Cartilage. 

Polymers. 12. 177. 10.3390/polym12010177. 

Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology by John E. Hall. 

Junqueira, L. C., & Carneiro, J. (2005). Junqueira’s Basic Histology: Text and Atlas (11th ed.). 

McGraw-Hill. 

Kenhub. (n.d.). Anatomy of breathing: Process and muscles of respiration. https://www.physio-pedia.com/Muscles_of_Respiration 

Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2016). Human anatomy & physiology (11th ed.). Pearson Education. National Institutes of Health. (n.d.). Anatomy of the Nose. MedlinePlus. 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532870

National Institutes of Health. (n.d.). Respiratory System. MedlinePlus. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21205-respiratory-system 

Professional, C. C. M. (n.d.). Respiratory system. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21205-respiratory-system 

Ross, M. H., & Pawlina, W. (2015). Histology: A Text and Atlas (7th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 

Wheater’s Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas by Barbara Young, James S. Lowe, Alan Stevens, and John W. Heath 

 

Written by Christine C. Gubatayao

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. los Baños, Ph.D.

Why is the skin important to the human body? One of the most vital parts of your body is your skin. The biggest organ in the human body is the skin. It acts as the main line of defense against the outside world. Skin, hair, and more structures allow all living things to keep and protect their features. The components of the skin are water, proteins, lipids, and minerals. 

UV protection, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties of skin are among its protective qualities. Imagine without a skin; you are not protected from microorganisms. You are not able to sense pain. It is thus possible to suffer harm without being aware of it. Your organs, bones, and muscles would protrude from the skin in all directions. 

How does skin protect the body? 

Skin connects everything, including: 

Keeps you protected from infections: 

The skin serves as the body’s primary physical barrier against the external environment. It protects against microorganisms, dehydration, UV light, and mechanical injury. This is important because the skin covers the majority of the human body. The skin is a packed network of cells. Each stratum adds to its durability. The body’s protective layers are the dermis, hypodermis, and epidermis. 

Controls body temperature: 

Vasoconstriction and vasodilation are part of the skin’s vast vascularization. It enables it to store and release heat. Blood vessels widen to enhance blood flow. Thus, optimize heat dissipation when temperatures rise. 

Immune protection: 

The skin serves as the body’s initial line of defense by acting as a physical barrier. This is to keep infections from entering the body. Keratin filaments provide support for the junction proteins that link cells together. The native immune cells are what provide immunity. 

Vitamin creation: 

Vitamin D production begins with metabolic processes initiated by the skin. The principal sources of vitamin D are sun exposure and oral intake. It is necessary for healthy bone metabolism and the absorption of calcium. 

Stimulus detection: 

The skin’s sensory nerve endings detect pain, temperature, touch, and vibration. The four types of mechanoreceptors that mediate benign touch are: 

• Meissner corpuscle 

• Pacinian corpuscle 

• Ruffini endings 

• Merkel cells 

The rates of adaptation and conduction differ through receptor and nerve fiber types. As a result, several signals arise. The body works together to understand and react to its environment. 

Exocrine function: 

This happens when ammonia, urea, and water get released. The skin secretes chemicals such as sweat, pheromones, and sebum. Thus, secreting biologic agents like cytokines serves a vital role in immunologic processes. 

Motility: 

The skin permits the body to move well. 

What is the microscopic structure of the skin? 

From an embryological perspective, the surface ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis. Melanocytes, which are pigment-producing cells derived from the neural crest, have penetrated it. The tactile receptor that senses pressure is the Merkel cell. Its pressure changes near the base of the epidermis. The Langerhans cells are antigen-processing. More cell types present in the epidermis are keratinocytes. 

Dermis originates from the mesoderm and contains connective tissue macromolecular components and cells. This includes elastic fibers, collagen, nerves, blood vessels, adipocytes, and fibroblasts. 

There are three main layers to the skin. Epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous. 

• the epidermis, the skin’s outermost layer. It alters skin tone and acts as a barrier against water. 
• The dermis lies underneath the tissue. It contains sweat glands, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, hair follicles, and connective tissue. 
• Fat and connective tissue make up the hypodermis, or deeper subcutaneous layer. 

When it comes to thick skin, such as the palms and soles, the epidermis is further separated into five layers. 

• Stratum basale 

• stratum spinosum 

• stratum granulosum 

• stratum lucidum 

• stratum corneum 

The dermis consists of two layers: the reticular dermis at the bottom and the papillary dermis at the top. 

What type of tissue is found in the integumentary system? 

The skin consists of several tissue types. Stratified squamous epithelia make up the epidermis, which qualifies as epithelial tissue. The several types of connective tissues that formed the dermis include: 

• Areolar Connective Tissue 

• Dense Irregular Connective Tissue 

• Histiocytes (Tissue Macrophage) 

• Adipose Tissue 

• Glands 

What are the two major components of the integumentary system? 

The Integumentary System’s major components are the skin and accessory structures. 

1. The skin consists of two layers: the surface epidermis and the deeper dermis. 

2. The skin’s accessory structures include the sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, and nails. These structures arise in the epidermis and all the way through the dermis to the hypodermis. 

The skin’s accessory structures consist of: 

• The dermis lies underneath the tissue. It contains sweat glands, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, hair follicles, and connective tissue. 

• Fat and connective tissue make up the hypodermis, or deeper subcutaneous layer. 

When it comes to thick skin, such as the palms and soles, the epidermis is further separated into five layers.

• Stratum basale 

• stratum spinosum 

• stratum granulosum 

• stratum lucidum 

• stratum corneum 

The dermis consists of two layers: the reticular dermis at the bottom and the papillary dermis at the top.

What type of tissue is found in the integumentary system? 

The skin consists of several tissue types. Stratified squamous epithelia make up the epidermis, which qualifies as epithelial tissue. The several types of connective tissues that formed the dermis include: 

• Areolar Connective Tissue 

• Dense Irregular Connective Tissue 

• Histiocytes (Tissue Macrophage) 

• Adipose Tissue 

• Glands 

What are the two major components of the integumentary system?

The Integumentary System’s major components are the skin and accessory structures. 

1. The skin consists of two layers: the surface epidermis and the deeper dermis. 

2. The skin’s accessory structures include the sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, and nails. These structures arise in the epidermis and all the way through the dermis to the hypodermis. 

The skin’s accessory structures consist of: 

• Hypodermis 

Between the dermis and the underlying organs is the hypodermis. It is also known as subcutaneous tissue and consists of adipose and loose areolar tissue. This layer links the skin to underlying components. For example, muscle stores fat, which serves as an extra cushion and insulation. 

• Hair 

Although it originates in the epidermis, hair roots in the dermis. Its anatomy splits between the hair follicle located within the epidermis. The hair shaft that is visible from the outside. The hair falls into two categories: 

1. Androgen-independent vellus hairs that cover the remaining areas 

2. Hormone-dependent, thicker terminal hairs in areas like the pubic areas, scalp, chest, etc. 

The hair follicle has a structure that contains the hair bulb that divides to extend the hair shaft. The phases of hair growth that’re regulated by hormones and growth, known as: 

1. anagen (growth phase) 

2. catagen (nonproliferative phase), 

3. telogen (resting phase) 

The majority of the body has been covered in hair. Except for the region of lips, palms, soles, and external genitalia. Hair improves sensory perception, protects the skin , and helps control body temperature. Dermal muscles (arrector pili) stick to follicles and help the shaft hold its position. Also, it retains air near the epidermis to regulate temperature. 

• Nails 

At the dorsal points of the fingers and toes, nails consist of layers of keratin. The growth of nails starts at the nail matrix, where new cells form. Older cells moved out in a distal direction. The part of the nail that is visible is the nail plate that covers the nail bed and connects to the finger. Also to improve sensitivity and movement precision, nails shield the fingers and toes. 

• Associated Glands: 

The four different types of exocrine glands found in human skin are: 

1. Sudoriferous 

2. sebaceous 

3. ceruminous 

4. mammary glands 

The sweat glands referred to eccrine and apocrine glands subtypes of sudoriferous glands. Apocrine glands located in the axilla and pubic region. It secrete milky, protein-rich sweat. 

These glands are in charge of odor as bacteria break down the organic materials they release. Eccrine glands circulate over the body. Hence, produces serous fluid to control body temperature. 

Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, a mixture of lipids that forms a thin layer on the skin. It is part of the pilosebaceous unit, which includes the hair, hair follicle and arrector pili. This layer acts as an antibacterial, gives a layer of protection, and stops fluid loss.

How do the parts of the integumentary system work together? 

Your body resembles an intricate mechanism. To keep in balance and work as it should, your organs, body parts, and systems all cooperate. Other systems rely on your integumentary system to keep functioning. 

Your immune system is the first line of defense against bacteria and infections. For instance, it benefits your immune system. White blood cells are also sent to wounds to start the healing process. 

Vitamin D, which functions as a hormone. It influences calcium absorption that is essential for the health of your bone. Thus, it absorbs with the aid of your integumentary system. Since they filter out dust and other pollutants from the air before you inhale them. 

What are the specialized cells in the integumentary system? 

Many specialized cells and structures located in the skin, such as: 

• Basket Cells 

Capable of sensing pressure, basket cells encircle the base of hair follicles. When evaluating the general health and condition of the nerves, they’re examined. 

• Vascular Structures 

Vascular structures transport waste materials and oxygen-rich blood to the skin’s cellular layers. 

• Hair Erector Muscle (Arrector Pili Muscle) 

Each hair follicle and the skin connect to the arrector pili muscle, a small muscle. It causes a “goosebump” to grow on the skin and the hair to stand erect as it contracts. 

• Hair Follicle 

The hair follicle is a tube-shaped sheath structure. It envelops and nourishes the part of hair beneath the skin. Both the dermis and the epidermis contain it. 

• Hair Shaft: 

The hair shaft is the part of hair that lies above the skin. The hair root penetrates the deeper layers of the skin. A sheath of skin and connective tissue surrounds each hair follicle. connections to the sebaceous gland. 

• Langerhans Cells: 

These cells identify antigens that penetrate damaged skin. It binds them to notify the immune system of their existence. The LC of the epidermis is the most researched example. The Birbeck granule is distinctive. A shape like a rod or tennis racket. Is what makes them identifiable via electron microscopy. 

• Melanocytes 

The pigment known as melanin gets generated by skin cells called melanocytes. It dwells in the epidermis’ basal layer and harms or develops lesions as a result of UVA exposure. Melanin functions as a protective barrier, stopping UV radiation from damaging DNA. As a result, skin cancer may result. 

• Merkel Cells 

The Merkel cells are tactile cells with neuroectodermal origins. It lies in the basal layer of the epidermis. 

• Pacinian Corpuscle 

It reacts to pressure and vibration known as a nerve receptor. The pacinian corpuscle lies in the subcutaneous fatty tissue. 

• Sebaceous Gland 

The sebaceous glands are tiny, sack-shaped glands. It coats and shields the hair shaft from breaking down by secreting an oily substance. The dermis contains these glands. 

• Sensory Nerves 

 Sensory nerves innervate the epidermis. Heat, discomfort, and other unpleasant sensations get sensed and transmitted by these nerves. Sensations like tingling, burning, discomfort, numbness, or pins and needles. It can become experienced when they are not working. Total number, contiguity, diameter, branching, swelling, and general health of sensory nerves. It will undergo assessment when analyzing a skin sample. 

• Stratum Corneum 

Dead skin cells make up the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the epidermis. The skin’s lower layers act as a strong barrier between the environment. It shields the living cells underneath it. Because the stratum corneum can thin more than usual. Thus, under certain circumstances, it is helpful for diagnosis. 

• Sweat Gland (Sudoriferous Gland) 

These epidermis-based glands discharged moisture, or sweat, onto the skin’s surface. It is being released through tiny channels. Sweat evaporates, lowering the skin’s warmth. 

How does the integumentary system maintain homeostasis? 

The skin, hair, nails, and glands all work together to keep the body safe and stable. The following body systems are in communication with the integumentary system: 

• The immune system 

It contains immune cells. It serves as a physical barrier against pathogenic microorganisms. The immune system keeps track of every germ it has ever beaten. So that it can identify and destroy the microbe if it enters the body again. 

• Digestive system 

Vitamin D gets delivered to the digestive system by the skin. The vitamin aids in calcium absorption. Thus, it needs to occur for bone maintenance and muscular contractions. 

• Cardiovascular system 

To keep or release heat, the blood vessels in the skin can dilate or contract. The rest of the body receives oxygenated blood from the heart via arteries. To restart circulation, the veins return blood that is low in oxygen to the heart. 

• Nervous system 

Information from sensations travel from the skin to the brain via nerve receptors. These include feeling pain, heat, cold, and other sensations. 

• Respiratory system 

Toxic particles get stopped from entering the lungs by microscopic hairs. It lines the nose passages. The voice box, windpipe, nose, mouth, throat, and lungs are all part of the respiratory system. The mouth or nose are the entry points for air into the respiratory system. The air gets heated and made more humid if it enters the nostrils, also known as the nares. 

• Urinary system 

The kidneys work with the skin’s discharged waste products. Thus, to maintain the body’s pH and electrolyte equilibrium 

References: 

Mph, Z. S. (2023, November 27). What to know about the integumentary system. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/integumentary-system#linked-conditi ons 

Anatomy of the Skin | SEER Training. (n.d.). https://training.seer.cancer.gov/melanoma/anatomy/ 

Professional, C. C. M. (n.d.). Integumentary System. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/22827-integumentary-system 

Kim, J. Y., & Dao, H. (2023, May 1). Physiology, Integument. StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554386/ Lopez-Ojeda, W., Pandey, A., Alhajj, M., & Oakley, A. M. (2022, October 17). 

Anatomy, Skin (Integument). StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441980/#:~:text=The%20skin%20is%2 0primarily% 

Written by Francine Marianne A. Caseres

Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. los Baños, Ph.D.

Made up of complex networks of cells, your digestive system is a vital organ that you can’t live without! You’re able to absorb nutrients and excrete waste through this system. And with it, you’re able to complete your daily tasks and get through the day. 

This complex system has many histological aspects that are essential for its actions. Among these are your different cells, histological layers, and others. Let’s discuss these one by one! 

The digestive system has your alimentary canal. It also has your accessory digestive organs. These include the salivary glands, teeth, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. These are all necessary so that they may help in the digestion of food. 

Intestinal Cells 

Among the most significant cells present are the epithelial cells in your intestines. The columnar epithelium helps absorb the nutrients needed in our body. As well as enterocytes, goblet cells, Paneth cells, and enteroendocrine cells. 

Enterocytes 

Involved in the chemical digestion of food, these cells line the intestines. They also form the brush border, which is a barrier for the absorption of food. This includes their ions, water, and nutrients. 

Goblet Cells 

These cells secrete mucus, which protects and lubricates the intestines. 

Paneth Cells 

The Paneth cells are in charge of the small intestine’s germ-killing output. They also help renew the intestine’s lining. 

Enteroendocrine Cells 

They aid in digestion by secreting many peptide hormones. They also regulate intestinal motility and food intake. 

Stomach Cells 

Many types of cells are also found on the stomach. Their main job is to break down materials using acid and enzymes. The stomach has four cell types. They are the chief, mucous neck, enteroendocrine, and parietal cells. 

Chief Cells 

These cells secrete pepsinogen, which breaks down proteins when activated.  

Mucous Neck Cells 

These types of cells located in the gastric glands of the stomach secrete acidic mucus. 

Enteroendocrine Cells 

These cells in the stomach differ from those in the intestine. In the stomach, these cells can secrete hormones, particularly gastrin. Gastrin’s main function is to make the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid. This acid kills bacteria and helps digest food. 

Parietal Cells 

These cells produce hydrochloric acid and the intrinsic factor. This factor enables the absorption of vitamin B12. 

What are the histological features of the digestive system?  

The digestive system can take in food. It absorbs nutrients and removes indigestible materials.  

Aside from the different cells in the digestive system, this system also has two types of organs. Some belong in the GI tract. Others belong in the accessory organs. All these play a huge part in your body’s functions.  

The GI tract has many parts. These include the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.  

• Mouth – The mouth aids in the mechanical processing of food. The cheeks, tongue, uvula, hard palate, and soft palate form this. They’ve mixed food with saliva. 

• Pharynx – Its pharyngeal muscles propel materials into the esophagus. It is composed of skeletal muscles and is covered with mucus. 

• Esophagus – The esophagus transports materials to the stomach. Including the transportation of bolus from the mouth to the stomach. This 25-centimeter tube starts from the interior end of the laryngopharynx.  

It then ends at the superior part of the stomach. 

• Stomach – This organ aids in the chemical breakdown of materials. It has four main regions namely, the cardia (surrounds superior opening), fundus (left to the cardia), body (large central portion), and pylorus (connects the stomach to the duodenum).  

• Small Intestine – This aids in the enzymatic digestion and absorption of water, vitamins, ions, and organic substrates. The small intestine also has three major parts namely the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. These will be discussed later on.  

• Large Intestine – The colon, the cecum, the anal canal and the rectum are the four major regions that compose the large intestine. It dehydrates and compacts undigested food materials, in preparation for elimination. 

• Anus – This is the last part of the GI tract and lubricates the passage to help the feces pass through smoothly. 

The accessory digestive organs also aid in digestion. These are the salivary glands, teeth, pancreas, liver, and the gallbladder. 

• Salivary glands – These glands secrete fluid that help breakdown carbohydrates. They release saliva into the oral cavity for this purpose. The three types of glands are the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands. 

• Teeth – Teeth aids in cutting, tearing, and pulverizing solid food. 

• Pancreas – This organ secretes digestive enzymes to digest protein. They also secrete a certain hormone, insulin, to control blood sugar levels of your body. 

• Liver – This organ secretes bile which is important for lipid digestion. They also store nutrients. Located just below the diaphragm, this is the 2nd largest organ in the human body. 

• Gallbladder – The gallbladder acts as the storage for bile. It is located beneath the liver and is a small, pear-shaped organ. 

Most of the digestive system is also composed of four histological layers. These four distinct layers are all vital to its function. These are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and the serosa. 

Mucosa 

This is the digestive system’s innermost layer. This has loose connective tissue and simple columnar epithelium with goblet cells. These are all divided into different layers of the mucosa. 

The three layers are the epithelium, the lamina propria, and the muscularis mucosae. The lamina propria is a type of loose connective tissue. This muscularis mucosae takes part in the formation of folds. 

Submucosa 

The second layer supports the mucosa. It’s rich in blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. This is also made up of dense irregular connective tissue. 

Muscularis externa 

Two layers of smooth muscle compose the muscularis. This layer is responsible for the peristalsis movement of the digestive system which is controlled by the nerve plexus. 

Serosa 

A simple squamous epithelium makes up the outermost layer of the digestive system. It also can also have a small amount of underlying loose connective tissue.  

What is the stomach cell that produces gastric acid? 

Hydrochloric acid makes up gastric acid, which aids in digesting food. The cells that produce it are the parietal cells. The parietal cells are located in the proximal two-thirds, or body of the stomach. 

What are the histological layers of the stomach?  

The stomach is part of the digestive system. It’s in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which compromise most of the system. It has four distinct layers, just like the layers of the digestive system. These are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and the serosa. 

Mucosa 

This is the stomach’s innermost layer. It releases digestive juices through its glands.  

Submucosa 

The second layer supports the mucosa. It’s rich in blood vessels, and contains the submucosal nervous plexus. 

Muscularis 

This helps mix the food with digestive juices in it. 

Serosa 

This is the outermost layer of the stomach. This layer also confines the stomach as it wraps around it. 

What is the stomach cell that produces gastric acid? 

Hydrochloric acid makes up gastric acid, which aids in digesting food. The cells that produce it are the parietal cells. The parietal cells are located in the proximal two-thirds, or body of the stomach. 

What is the histology of the duodenum? 

The duodenum is actually found in the first part of the small intestine. In this region, the body mixes bile and digestive juices with the food to aid in further digestion. Vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients are also absorbed here. 

The duodenum is like other GI organs. It has the mucosa, submucosa, and muscularis layers. The duodenum has a unique feature. It has microvilli, villi, and Brunner’s glands. 

Microvilli  

Actin filaments support the microvilli. They are protrusions on the surface of different cell types. 

Villi 

Villi are small projections. They enable maximum nutrient absorption by increasing surface area. 

Brunner’s Glands 

Cuboidal and columnar cells make up these glands and secrete neutral mucin. These glands are also similar to the glands in the distal gastric mucosa and periampullary region. But, they have a nodular appearance on the mucosal surface. 

What is the histology of the jejunum? 

You call the middle region of your small intestine the jejunum. Proteins, fats, cholesterol, and water absorb here. Like your whole small intestine, the jejunum has its own mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa layers.  

The jejunum has key features. They are the Lieberkuhn crypts and villi. The intestinal lumen contains them.  

Lieberkuhn crypts 

These crypts are tubular glands. They secrete intestinal juice and are formed from the mucosa at the bases of the villi. You can also find Paneth cells and stem cells in these crypts. 

What is the role of the large intestine in the digestive system?  

The large intestine, also known as the colon, plays an essential role in your body. The rectum and anus are also in your large intestine. They’re important in fulfilling the activities of your daily lives.  

But first, what exactly is the large intestine? 

It’s in the last part of your GI tract. Mainly, it absorbs water and eliminates solid waste. Dehydration and the compaction of indigestible materials also happen here. They’re prepared for elimination. 

Your large intestine is 1.5 meters long. It extends from the cecum to the anus. The large intestine has four main parts: the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. 

Cecum  

The cecum is a small pouch-like organ that is present next to the ileocecal sphincter. The cecum’s main job is to get food from the small intestine. It then moves the food to the large intestine. 

Colon 

This is where the final absorption of water and electrolytes takes place. The colon secretes mucus to bind and lubricate food waste. This helps it pass through the intestine smoothly. 

Rectum  

This composes the last 20 centimeters of the GI tract. In this region, the food waste, now in the form of feces, triggers the urge to defecate. Defecation, in turn, is so important for our body so we may be able to get rid of our own toxins. 

Anal Canal 

As feces leaves your body, it travels through your anus, marking the end of the digestive cycle. 

What are the major histological features of the large intestine?

The large intestine is made of columnar epithelial cells. They are able to absorb materials well. It also has many goblet cells, basal stem cells, and endocrine cells. Yet, there is no striated border nor Paneth cells.  

Like the small intestine, the large intestine also has its own histological layers. These include the mucosa, its lamina propria, submucosa, and muscularis externa. 

Like that of the small intestine are the lamina propria and submucosa. 

The muscularis externa is different from the small intestine, in contrast. It is arranged in three long bands called taenia coli. 

Lastly, the mucosa has no villi, unlike other structures of the digestive system. But instead of villi, the large intestine has crypts. 

The Digestive System as a Whole 

Together with the GI tract and accessory organs, they make up your digestive system. And your body would function poorly without it.  You may not be able to enjoy tasting and eating food, nor excrete the toxins of your body. 

Constipation, the lack of bowel movement, is also common. It affects one-third of adults over 60. In fact, without treatment, severe constipation can lead to bowel problems. In severe cases, it could lead to hospitalization, surgery, and even death. 

Thus, the role of our digestive system is essential in our lives. No one can live without it, and it’s up to you to take good care of this system. 

To eat a good diet and exercise regularly is one of the key things that can affect your body healthily. The histology of the digestive system is fascinating. All the cells and tissues involved would help you thrive. They enable your organs to work normally. 

References 

Britannica. (2018). Villus | anatomy. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/villus 

Brunner’s Glands – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). http://Www.sciencedirect.com. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/brunners-glands 

Cleveland Clinic. (2021, December 8). Colon (Large Intestine): Function, Anatomy & Definition. Cleveland Clinic; Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/22134-colon-large-intestine 

Constipation: Risks and more. (2023, May 25). http://Www.medicalnewstoday.com. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/death-by-constipation 

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Karunaharamoorthy, A. (2021, October 28). Jejunum. Kenhub. https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/the-jejunum 

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‌Paxton, S., Peckham, M., & Knibbs, A. (2003). The Leeds Histology Guide. Www.histology.leeds.ac.uk. https://www.histology.leeds.ac.uk/digestive/large_intestine.php#:~:text=The%20thick%20mucosa%20has%20deep 

Physiopedia. (n.d.). Goblet Cells. Physiopedia. https://www.physio-pedia.com/Goblet_Cells 

‌The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2023, May 18). Microvillus | Description, Anatomy, & Function | Britannica. http://Www.britannica.com. https://www.britannica.com/science/microvillus 

The Stomach | Anatomy and Physiology II. (n.d.). Courses.lumenlearning.com. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap2/chapter/the-stomach/#:~:text=These%20include%20parietal%20cells%2C%20chief 

University of rochester medical center. (2019). Anatomy of the Stomach – Health Encyclopedia – University of Rochester Medical Center. Rochester.edu. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?contenttypeid=34&contentid=17785-1 

‌Vakil, N. (2021, June). Overview of Acid Secretion – Gastrointestinal Disorders. MSD Manual Professional Edition. https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/gastritis-and-peptic-ulcer-disease/overview-of-acid-secretion 

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