Written by Lorraine V. Espina

Edited and Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños

What is the cytoskeleton and its function? The cytoskeleton is a complex and changing network of protein filaments and tubules. It exists in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and some prokaryotic cells.

It is a key part of the cell’s structure. It supports the cell and helps with many important functions. The scaffold-like structure supports the cell’s shape. It helps with intracellular transport and cell movement, and it also plays a role in cell division.

Three primary types of filaments make up the cytoskeleton.

1. Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton. Subunits of actin protein compose these.

Cells require microfilaments for various activities:

• maintaining cell shape,
• cell movement, and
• muscle contraction.

Actin filaments are dynamic and may polymerize and depolymerize at a rapid pace to allow the cell to change its shape or move.

2. Intermediate Filaments: These filaments are thicker than microfilaments but thinner than microtubules. In a cell, these give the strength and support needed to handle tension and stress.

Intermediate filaments are stiffer and less dynamic as compared to microfilaments and microtubules. Common examples of intermediate filaments are keratin, vimentin, and desmin. These proteins support various types of cells.

3. Microtubules: These are hollow, cylindrical tubes made up of tubulin protein subunits.

Microtubules take part in numerous processes, which include:

• cell division (mitosis and meiosis),
• intracellular transport, and
• the structural integrity of the cell.

They make up the mitotic spindle during cell division. They also act as a “highway” for motor proteins like kinesins and dyneins, which transport cargo inside the cell.

The functions of the cytoskeleton categorize into several key areas:

• Keep Cell Shape: The cytoskeleton gives the cell a strong framework. This support helps the cell resist deformation when under stress.

• Motor proteins like kinesins and dyneins help move things inside the cell. They travel along microtubules, carrying vesicles, organelles, and other cargo.

• Cell Division: The cytoskeleton helps move chromosomes and split daughter cells in mitosis.

• Cell Motility: The cytoskeleton allows for the movement of the entire cell or parts of the cell. This is important in processes such as tissue development, immune responses, and wound healing.

• Signal Transduction: The cytoskeleton connects with signaling molecules. These molecules influence how cells respond to growth factors and other external signals.

The cytoskeleton is a flexible network. It provides support but also changes and adapts to help the cell meet the demands of its environment.

What is the origin of the cytoskeleton?

The origin of the cytoskeleton has a significant connection to the evolution of cellular life. Most scientists think the cytoskeleton formed early in life’s development on Earth. This likely happened around the same time simple prokaryotic cells, like bacteria, appeared.

The cytoskeleton likely started as a set of proteins. These proteins helped the cell keep its shape and supported movement.

Prokaryotic cells have simpler cytoskeletal elements. They include FtsZ, a protein similar to tubulin that helps with cell division. There’s also MreB, an actin-like protein that supports cell structure.

These ancient elements were much simpler than any eukaryotic cell. They served as the building blocks for more complex cellular systems that followed.

As eukaryotic cells evolved, they became more complex and larger. This growth needed better organization inside the cells. The cytoskeleton developed in these cells. It helps with shape and structure. It also allows the cell to divide, move, and transport materials.

Eukaryotic cells have more complex cytoskeletons than prokaryotes. The various types of filaments found in eukaryotes show what prokaryotes lack.

The evolution of a complex cytoskeleton in eukaryotes likely helped multicellularity arise. This change allowed cells to interact, grow, and take on specific tissue roles.

What can damage the cytoskeleton?

The cytoskeleton is an important structure, but it is susceptible to damage or disruption in several forms. Damage to the cytoskeletal component leads to many varied dysfunctional cellular problems.

The most common reasons leading to cytoskeletal damage include:

1. Mechanical Stress: There is mechanical stress due to the physical forces applied in the surrounding environment of a cell. For example, when tissues deform or cells change shape, the cytoskeleton stretches too much. Its parts can break or become disorganized

• Infectious Agents: Pathogens like viruses, bacteria, and parasites often attack the cytoskeleton. They do this to enter host cells or use the host cell for their needs. .

• Oxidative Stress: Reactive oxygen species come from cellular metabolism or environmental damage. They can harm cytoskeletal proteins.

Oxidative damage can harm cytoskeletal structures. This disruption weakens cell function and stability.

• Genetic Mutations: Changes in genes for cytoskeletal proteins can damage the cytoskeleton. This harms its structure and function. Mutations in the dystrophin gene can cause Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Dystrophin is a protein that links the cytoskeleton to the cell membrane. This condition weakens muscle cells.

• Nutritional Deficiencies: Missing nutrients like vitamin C can weaken the cytoskeleton. Vitamin C is important in the synthesis of collagen, which supports the cytoskeleton in some tissues. A deficiency will make the cytoskeleton fragile and susceptible to damage.

What happens if the cytoskeleton is defective?

Cytoskeleton defects can harm the cell. They may lead to various functional problems. The various outcomes depend on the specific part that is faulty.

Some common effects of the defective cytoskeleton include the following:

• Loss of Cell Shape and Integrity: The cell might lose its shape, become distorted, or not maintain its structural integrity.

Defective actin filaments can cause cells to become rounded. This change affects their normal shape and can hurt their function.

• Impaired Cell Division: The cytoskeleton helps organize and separate chromosomes when cells divide. Defects in microtubules or the mitotic spindle cause aneuploidy. This means cells have an abnormal number of chromosomes.

It leads to cancer, genetic disorders, or cell death.

• Inability to Move or Migrate: Cells need cytoskeletal components to move. If these parts get damaged, cells can’t move well.

For example, immune cells like macrophages may not be able to move toward infection sites, impairing immune responses.

• Impaired tissue function occurs when cytoskeletal proteins in multicellular organisms malfunction. For example, if muscle fibers fail to contract, they become weak. This can lead to diseases like muscular dystrophy.

• Neurological Diseases: Neurons depend on the cytoskeleton for support. It helps move substances along their long axons.

Mutations in proteins such as tau and neurofilaments connect to neurodegenerative diseases. These include Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.

Which cells lack cytoskeleton?

Most cells have a cytoskeleton. It helps keep their shape. It also supports functions and aids in movement and division. However, there are a few exceptions where certain types of cells lack a cytoskeleton or have a very minimal one:

1. Prokaryotic Cells (Bacteria and Archaea): Prokaryotes, including bacteria and archaea, usually do not have the complex cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells. They do have simpler proteins that help them maintain their shape and facilitate cellular processes such as division.

The FtsZ protein in bacteria acts like tubulin. It helps prokaryotic cells divide by forming a ring structure, ensuring proper cell division. Protein MreB, similar to actin, aids in keeping the shape of prokaryotic cells.

These structures are simpler than microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments in eukaryotes. Still, they perform similar basic functions.

• Red blood cells (RBCs) classify as eukaryotic. But they lack most of the usual cytoskeleton found in other cells. Mature RBCs lose their nuclei and most organelles as they mature. They have a small cytoskeleton made of spectrin and actin.

This configuration enables them to maintain their balloonlike biconcave shape. Their incompressibility through tiny capillaries is integral to their need for such a shape.

RBCs are different from other cells. They don’t rely on a complex cytoskeleton for structure or function. Their main job is to transport oxygen.

Most eukaryotic cells rely on their cytoskeleton for survival and function. Prokaryotes have simple cytoskeletal structures too, which help them perform essential cellular tasks.

What are the diseases associated with the cytoskeleton?

Cytoskeletons play a key role in keeping cells shaped, dividing, and transporting materials. When disruptions occur, they can lead to many diseases. A few of the more notable diseases related to defects in the cytoskeleton are:

• Cancer: The cytoskeleton guides cell division. When microtubules, actin, or intermediate filaments have issues, it causes uncontrolled growth. This is a key feature of cancer.

Microtubule abnormalities can cause mistakes in chromosome separation, leading to genetic instability. Mutations in actin and vimentin help cancer cells invade nearby tissues. Drugs like taxanes work on microtubules to stop cancer cell division.

• Muscular Dystrophies: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) happens when there isn’t enough dystrophin. This protein connects actin filaments to the cell membrane. Without it, muscles weaken and waste away.

This causes trouble walking and can lead to losing mobility. Other muscular dystrophies, like limb-girdle muscular dystrophy, involve similar cytoskeletal protein mutations.

• Neurodegenerative Diseases: Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and ALS (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis) affect the cytoskeleton in neurons. In Alzheimer’s, tau proteins disrupt microtubules, causing cell death.

In Parkinson’s, problems with microtubules hinder the movement of key parts. This is especially true in dopamine-producing neurons.

• Ciliopathies: Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia (PCD) and others result from microtubule defects of cilia. The body compromises respiratory and fertility functions.
• Situs inversus is a condition linked to Kartagener’s syndrome. This syndrome is a form of PCD. In situs inversus, the body mirrors all internal organs.
• Epidermolysis Bullosa (EB) is a skin disorder. It causes fragile skin that develops blisters with little effort. This happens due to a mutation in keratin, which helps stabilize cells.
• Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia (HSP) and Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease (CMT) are neurodegenerative diseases. They happen due to mutations in proteins like microtubules or neurofilaments in neurons. This leads to muscle weakness, sensory loss, and neuron degeneration.

These defects impact how neurons transport signals. This leads to muscle weakness, sensory loss, and progressive degeneration of motor neurons.

What are some interesting facts about the cytoskeleton?

The cytoskeleton is one of the most interesting and dynamic parts within the cell. Its functions provide support, aid movement, and allow communication within and between cells.

No one matches their complexity. The cytoskeleton is unique because it changes all the time. Most cell structures stay the same. The cell builds and breaks down the cytoskeleton in a continuous cycle.

This will enable the cell to change its shape in a short amount of time, move, and adapt to different conditions. When a cell divides, microtubules change shape.

They form the mitotic spindle. The spindle makes sure the two daughter cells get the same number of chromosomes.

The final feature of the cytoskeleton is intracellular transport. Motor proteins, like kinesin and dynein, act like highways. They transport cargo, such as vesicles and organelles, along microtubules or actin filaments.

This transport process is vital for keeping cells balanced by delivering materials to different cell parts.

In neurons, microtubules serve as tracks. They help transport important components to the synapse. This process can break down in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

Notable too are the evolutionary implications of the cytoskeleton. Some scientists believe the cytoskeleton helped eukaryotic cells evolve from prokaryotic ancestors.

Prokaryotes had simple cytoskeletal structures from the start. These helped keep their shape and support cell division.

Eukaryotes later developed a more advanced cytoskeletal network. This change allowed them to grow into larger and more complex organisms.

Conclusion

The cytoskeleton is vital for many functions. It helps maintain cell shape and structure. It also plays a key role in movement, division, and transport.

The cytoskeleton not working can lead to serious problems in many diseases. These diseases affect various tissues and organ systems.

One of the most beautiful things about the cytoskeleton is its ability to adapt. It acts as a flexible framework that meets any new cell needs. So, the shape of the cell changes to fit new parts of the cytoplasm.

This helps with movement and cell division, allowing the cell to grow and thrive. The cytoskeleton helps move things inside the cell.

It carries needed substances along its pathways for the cell to use. These functions show how complex the cytoskeleton is.

They also show its role in the evolution of multicellular systems. The cytoskeleton and its related diseases are important for basic science and clinical medicine.

It sheds light on key cellular processes. This also points to possible treatment targets for various diseases.

The cytoskeleton is more than a simple structure. It is dynamic and serves many functions. It is essential for the health and operation of every cell.

References:

Microtubules, filaments | Learn Science at Scitable. (n.d.). https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/microtubules-and-filaments-14052932/#:~:tex t=Microtubules%20and%20Filaments,is%20no%20single%20cytoskeletal%20componen t.

Libretexts. (2022, October 23). 14: The cytoskeleton. Biology LibreTexts. https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Davis/BIS_2A%3A_Introducto ry_Biology_(Easlon)/Readings/14%3A_The_Cytoskeleton

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Cytoskeleton | Description, Structure, & Function. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton. (2023, October 30). Kenhub. https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/cytoskeleton Khan Academy. (n.d.).

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/tour-of-organelles/a/the-cytoskeleton

J. Keeling, P., & V. Koonin, E. (2014). Origin and Evolution of the Self-Organizing Cytoskeleton in the Network of Eukaryotic Organelles. PMC PubMed Central, 25183829. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a016030

Microtubules, filaments | Learn Science at Scitable. (n.d.-b). https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/microtubules-and-filaments-14052932/

Wickstead, B., & Gull, K. (2011). The evolution of the cytoskeleton. JCB Journal of Cell Biology, Rockefeller University Press. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201102065

McMurray, C. T. (2000). Neurodegeneration: diseases of the cytoskeleton? Cell Death and Differentiation, 7(10), 861–865. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4400764

Ramaekers, F. C., & Bosman, F. T. (2004). The cytoskeleton and disease. The Journal of Pathology, 204(4), 351–354. https://doi.org/10.1002/path.1665

Gutiérrez‑Vargas, J., Castro‑Álvarez, J., Zapata‑Berruecos, J., Abdul‑Rahim, K., &

Arteaga‑Noriega, A. (2022). Neurodegeneration and convergent factors contributing to the deterioration of the cytoskeleton in Alzheimer’s disease, cerebral ischemia and multiple sclerosis (Review). Biomedical Reports, 16(4). https://doi.org/10.3892/br.2022.1510

Cytoskeletons shaking hands: Defects in cytoskeletal structures lead to various diseases. (2015, June 15). ScienceDaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/06/150603083200.htm

Cartelli, D. (2021). Chapter 6 – Neuronal structure in aging: cytoskeleton in health and disease.

Assessments, Treatments and Modeling in Aging and Neurological Disease, 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818000-6.00006-8

Libretexts. (2023, August 31). 7.6: The cytoskeleton. Biology LibreTexts. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_4%3A_Eu karyotic_Microorganisms_and_Viruses/07%3A_The_Eukaryotic_Cell/7.6%3A_The_Cyto skeleton

The cytoskeleton, flagella and cilia, and the plasma membrane | Biology for Non-Majors i. (n.d.). https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-nmbiology1/chapter/the-cytoskeleton-flagella-and-cilia-and-the-plasma-membrane/

Cytoskeleton – the movers and shapers in the cell | British Society for Cell Biology. (n.d.). https://bscb.org/learning-resources/softcell-e-learning/cytoskeleton-the-movers-and-shap ers-in-the-cell/

Li, M., Peng, L., Wang, Z., Liu, L., Cao, M., Cui, J., Wu, F., & Yang, J. (2023). Roles of the cytoskeleton in human diseases. Molecular Biology Reports, 50(3), 2847–2856. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-022-08025-5

G. Stringham, E., Marcus-Gueret, N., Ramsay, L., & L. Schmidt, K. (2012). Chapter Eleven – Live cell imaging of the cytoskeleton. Methods in Enzymology, 505, 203–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-388448-0.00019-X

M. Cooper, G. (2000). Chapter 11The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9893/#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20playing%20this,mitotic%20chromosomes)%20through%20the%20cytoplasm. Khan Academy. (n.d.-b).

https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/cells/eukaryotic-cells/a/organelles-article Dalton, L., & Young, R. (2024, January 1). The cytoskeleton. Pressbooks.

Written by Lawrence Barquilla

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

The mitochondria’s major role is to generate ATP or adenosine triphosphate. ATP is the cell’s primary energy source and is utilized for reactions. Cellular respiration produces ATP.

The mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria) is an organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is popularly known as the cell’s “powerhouse,” and its primary function is to produce energy for the body.

You will learn throughout this article about the powers of the cell’s powerhouse. You will also identify the key roles this organelle plays in the body’s normal physiology.

What is the major goal of cellular respiration?

Cellular respiration is the process of which the major goal is to produce ATP. This process occurs in the mitochondria of cells. Cellular respiration is an integral process. It is where the cells convert nutrients into usable energy in the form of ATP. Thus, the mitochondria sustain life.

The process of cellular respiration is a series of metabolic pathways. In these pathways, glucose and organic molecules break down to produce ATP. This occurs in three main stages as follows.

1. Glycolysis

This involves splitting one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. It is the process of splitting a 6-carbon sugar into a 3-carbon sugar. This process generates a net gain of 2 ATP molecules. The method of substrate-level phosphorylation produces these 2 ATP molecules.

Alongside the ATP produced, electron carriers such as NADH molecules are also produced. These will be needed in the later stages of the process. Additionally, this stage occurs in the cytoplasm. Later on, the products will move into the mitochondria for further processing.

• Citric Acid Cycle

The pyruvate molecules from glycolysis now enter the mitochondria. Each of the 2 pyruvate molecules is converted into acetyl-CoA. The products then enter the citric acid cycle afterward. During this stage, ATP is not produced.

However, 2 GTP are produced, which function similarly to that of ATP. GTP stands for guanosine triphosphate. GTP is equal to 1 ATP per 1 GTP molecule produced.

Additionally, the products are electron carriers. These include NADH and FADH2, as well as carbon dioxide, which are waste products. These products will move into the next few steps of the process.

• Oxidative Phosphorylation

This is the final stage in the process of cellular respiration. It takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The electron transport chain makes use of the electrons from the electron carriers.

From the previous steps, NADH and FADH2 serve as the electron carriers of the system. The electron carriers create a proton gradient. This proton gradient allows for the electron transport chain to operate. Additionally, this gradient is what drives the synthesis of ATP.

As electrons are transferred from the carriers, a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane is created. Once the electrons enter back into the mitochondrial matrix, they pass through the ATP synthase. As they pass through the enzyme, ATP is generated.

This step produces the most ATP among the stages. A total of 28 to 34 ATP molecules are produced.

Which cell in the human body does not have mitochondria?

The erythrocytes, commonly known as the red blood cells, are the only cells in the body that do not contain mitochondria. These erythrocytes not only lack the mitochondria but also lack other cell organelles, one of which is the nucleus.

Red blood cells function primarily to carry oxygen throughout the entire body. Thus, having the adaptation of losing the mitochondria allows for maximized oxygen transport.

By removing this specific organelle, the red blood cells can accommodate more hemoglobin. Once more hemoglobin is accommodated, more oxygen can be transported from the lungs to the tissues to the cells of the body.

Another point to look at is the shape and structure of red blood cells. They have a biconcave shape, which allows for an increased surface area for gas exchange. By removing the mitochondria and other organelles, the red blood cells are able to maximize the space.

Without the mitochondria, you may start to wonder how red blood cells produce energy for their own use. Well, they still have a reliable source of energy through the process of anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration involves metabolizing glucose through glycolysis. This is to generate ATP without the need for oxygen. Although possible, this is not as efficient as cellular or aerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration is not as efficient in ATP generation.

Regardless, it enables red blood cells to attain energy. It is important to have an energy source as they carry and transport oxygen through the body.

Overall, having no mitochondria comes to be more beneficial for red blood cells. It is a crucial adaptation that improves their ability to carry oxygen efficiently. This interesting adaptation is what maintains the oxygen concentration at a healthy level.

Which organ contains the most mitochondria?

The heart is the organ that is most abundant in the amount of mitochondria. As the heart is in a continuous state of function, it needs significantly more energy than other organs of the body.

The heart holds the highest number of mitochondria. It amounts to about one-third or 30% of the total cardiac cell volume. The high mitochondrial density enables the heart to generate the needed amount of energy. This energy sustains the rhythmic contractions of the heart.

To help sustain the function of the heart, more ATP is needed. The heart beats about 100,000 times in one day. This activity requires a large amount of energy. As such, the need for more ATP is addressed by having more mitochondria in the cell itself.

The mitochondrial count is also high among other high-energy demanding organs. This includes your liver and skeletal muscles.

The liver is responsible for a lot of functions. It includes detoxification, protein synthesis, and regulation of biochemical reactions. Thus, hepatocytes need more ATP to enable the liver to function efficiently.

The skeletal muscles require a substantial amount of energy for contraction and movement. The more we move our bodies, the more energy is needed. The more active we are, the more mitochondria are required in order to produce more energy.

This all boils down to the fact that as the cells become more active, more energy is needed. In order to keep up with the increased need for energy, more mitochondria are required.

How many mitochondria does a human have?

By a general estimate, humans can have around 1000 mitochondria per cell. As such, the total mitochondria of a human being can be estimated to reach around 100 trillion mitochondria. The sum of all the mitochondria in each possible cell of the human body.

Mitochondrial density varies across different cell types. As you have learned earlier, some cells need more, while some don’t need the mitochondria at all.

By approximation, the diverse activities, functions, and processes a human being undergoes require a ton of energy supplied by the 100 trillion mitochondria everywhere.

What foods repair mitochondria?

Numerous scientists worldwide have recorded mitochondrial damage. As such, researchers discovered that this degradation is reversible. This can be done through food intake that supports and restores mitochondrial function.

1. Antioxidants

Antioxidants are good to combat the presence of free radicals. Free radicals are harmful to the cells and can damage the mitochondria even more. As such, antioxidants are a great way to combat the presence of risky free radicals.

Blueberries and other berries, in general, are packed with antioxidants. Pomegranate seeds have also been found to be high in antioxidants. They are also high in fiber, vitamin C, and potassium.

• B Vitamins

B vitamins work as co-enzymes. These help start up the mitochondrial engines to synthesize energy. These B vitamins are cofactors for many enzymes in the mitochondrial energy metabolism.

For optimal function of the mitochondria, adequate amounts of B vitamins and other vitamins must be observed. Beef is a great and complete source of B vitamins. Additionally, it contains healthy amounts of omega-3 fats.

• Sulfur

Sulfur compounds play a role in mitochondrial dynamics. They also contain antioxidant properties that reduce oxidative stress in the cell.

Sulfur can be sourced from broccoli and broccoli sprouts. They have far higher concentrations of sulfur in broccoli than among other vegetables.

• Fats

Fats in the mitochondria are used as part of a protective membrane. A diet comprised of high-quality fats and oils is essential to ensure a healthy mitochondrion.

Familiar healthy fat sources include olive oil, Butter, and Salmon. Olive oil is rich in phytonutrients that combat free radical damage efficiently. Butter, in healthy moderation, serves as a good source of fat-soluble vitamins.

Fatty fish such as salmon are high in essential omega-3 fatty acids. This helps support mitochondrial function as well as reduce inflammation.

• Magnesium

Magnesium is a mineral that performs numerous functions on a daily basis. The mitochondria depend on magnesium as it is a vital cofactor. Magnesium is involved in glycolysis, cell respiration, and transmembrane transport.

As such, magnesium is in avocados and spinach. Avocados are high in magnesium content as well as their monounsaturated fat. Spinach, along with most common green leafy vegetables, contains high and healthy amounts of magnesium.

It is essential to look at your diet and try to incorporate such examples into your meals. By doing so, you are able to support mitochondrial repair. You are also able to enhance your overall cellular energy turnover. This eventually leads to better health and lifestyle outcomes.

What happens if the mitochondria stop working?

Once the mitochondria stop working, a range of health issues collectively known as mitochondrial dysfunction can occur.

As you may have learned, the mitochondria serve an integral function in sustaining life. Once the mitochondria stop working, the cell will bear the consequences as follows.

1. Energy Deficiency

ATP production now happens at a much slower rate. It results in a significantly lesser turnover.

Aside from cellular respiration, there are also other means of producing ATP in the body. It can occur through beta-oxidation, ketosis, protein catabolism, and anaerobic metabolism. The problem here is that these are not as efficient as the mitochondria in ATP synthesis.

When the body functions continue, the lack of energy will cause a significant imbalance. An imbalance between the production and expenditure of ATP. Thus, an energy deficiency.

• Organ Defects and Dysfunction

Earlier, you have learned that some organs contain more mitochondria than others. This is because of their functions. Some require them to have more mitochondria and generate more energy.

As such, the inhibition of ATP production can lead to severe damage and complications to the heart, skeletal muscles, and kidneys, for instance. The effects can span a range of disorders that overall impair the body’s normal functioning.

• Metabolic Disorders

Metabolic disorders result from mitochondrial dysfunction, and these include mainly diabetes and obesity.

If the body continues to consume the daily food and nutrient intake, the inability to produce the same amount of energy causes an imbalance. This imbalance is between energy production and use leads to a defective metabolism.

Other diseases of a metabolic nature are type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular diseases.

Overall, the mitochondria prove to be the cell’s powerhouse. Not just the cell but the entire body system’s powerhouse. All of the essential functions depend on ATP, and the mitochondria serve to produce as much ATP as needed. Without these important organelles, life would be put to a halt as we deal with its consequences. As such, keeping your body healthy lies at the forefront of ensuring that your organs, tissues organelles, and cells function efficiently.

References:

Bhatti, J. S., Bhatti, G. K., & Reddy, P. H. (2016). Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in metabolic disorders — A step towards mitochondria based therapeutic strategies.

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Molecular Basis of Disease, 1863(5), 1066–1077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbadis.2016.11.010

Brand, M. D., Orr, A. L., I.V. Perevoshchikova, & Quinlan, C. L. (2013). The role of mitochondrial function and cellular bioenergetics in aging and disease. British Journal of Dermatology, 169, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12208

Cox, A. (2019). Top 9 Foods You Need to Boost Your Mitochondria – Institute for Restorative Health. Institute for Restorative Health. https://instituteforrestorativehealth.com/2019/07/09/top-9-foods-you-need-to-boost-your- mitochondria/ health.com/2019/07/09/top-9-foods-you-need-to-boost-your-mitochondria/

Hashiguchi, K., & Qiu-Mei Zhang-Akiyama. (2009). Establishment of Human Cell Lines Lacking Mitochondrial DNA. Methods in Molecular Biology, 383–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-521-3_23

Li, A., Shami, G. J., Griffiths, L., Lal, S., Irving, H., & Braet, F. (2023). Giant mitochondria in cardiomyocytes: cellular architecture in health and disease. Basic Research in Cardiology, 118(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00395-023-01011-3

Mouna Habbane, Montoya, J., Taha Rhouda, Yousra Sbaoui, Driss Radallah, & Emperador, S. (2021). Human Mitochondrial DNA: Particularities and Diseases. Biomedicines, 9(10), 1364–1364. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9101364

Rogers, K. (2009, January 19). Mitochondrion | Definition, Function, Structure, & Facts.

Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/mitochondrion

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Written by: Therese C. Oyales

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

A histopathologist diagnoses diseases after careful examination of a tissue sample. They track the disease’s progression by looking for abnormal changes in the cells. Cancer cells, infections, and inflammations are the kinds of abnormalities histopathologists check for.

Histopathologists do not work alone. They work in a multidisciplinary team. This team documents, processes, or examines the patient’s samples (biopsy). They also meet with other physicians to discuss the findings. Some healthcare professionals they work with include:

• Laboratory staff
• Nurses
• Molecular scientists
• Mortuary staff
• Surgeons
• Oncologists
• Radiologists
• Forensic medicine scientist

These healthcare workers discuss each patient’s condition and create a treatment plan that suits their individual needs. Once treatment has started, they will monitor its effectiveness. They will continue the medication or therapy if the histopathologist notices signs of healing.

The field of histopathology is not limited to samples from living people. A forensic histopathologist determines the cause of death of individuals at crime scenes. Generally, they do not perform autopsies. They do microscopic analyses on tissues from internal organs.

Tools of the trade

Did you know that the microscope is the most essential tool in a histopathology laboratory? It allows the histopathologist to view organisms that are too small to see with the naked eye. It reveals the cells’ detailed structures and the presence of abnormalities.

Some equipment used for tissue preparation are:

• Microtome

A microtome slices the block of embedded tissue into very thin sections. It is a precise and accurate instrument that creates “ribbons” for easy sequencing of the sections. Different microtomes are used for paraffin, plastic, and frozen sections due to the material’s toughness.

• Paraffin wax bath

The histopathologist manipulates the sections using a paraffin wax bath to arrange them into the desired orientation and location. They transfer the sections into glass slides using the hot distilled water from the bath.

• Automatic Tissue Processor

An automatic tissue processor prepares tissues for the histopathologist. It can fix, dehydrate, clear, and infiltrate the specimen.

• Embedding Cassettes

Histopathologists use embedding cassettes to secure the tissue specimens for storage, processing, and embedding.

Who is the father of tissue study?

Marie-François Xavier Bichat is regarded as the father of tissue study. He was a French anatomist, pathologist, and physiologist whose contributions led to the establishment of the scientific study of tissues.

Bichat was born on November 14, 1771, in Bresse, France. His family supported his interest in science and medicine. His father, Jean Baptiste Bichat, was a physician at Montpellier and was a great inspiration to the young boy.

He started his medical journey at Lyon, where Marc-Antoine Petit, a chief surgeon at the Hôtel Dieu, became his mentor. In 1793, he studied under a surgeon and anatomist called Pierre-Joseph Desault. After his teacher passed, he continued doing research and publishing books on his own.

Contributions

• Pioneer of histology. Bichat was the first to study tissues. He proposed that organs are made up of groups of tissues that share similar structure and function. He discovered the organizational level between organs and cells, and these are tissues.

• Correlation between structure and function. Bichat established that the structure of cells and tissues relates to their function. Their arrangement and shape are tied to their specific roles in the body.

• Classification of tissues. Bichat distinguished 21 kinds of tissues based on their specific characteristics. He analyzed the different combinations and roles of each tissue kind.

Publications

• Traité des membranes (Treatise on Membranes)
• Recherches physiologiques sur la vie et la mort (Physiological Research on Life and Death)
• Anatomie Générale (General Anatomy) Volumes I & II

Who is the father of pathology?

Rudolf Virchow, a physician, pathologist, and politician, made profound contributions to cellular pathology. Hence, he is now known as the “father of pathology.” His works helped us better understand the nature of diseases. And, how they can be accurately diagnosed on a cellular level.

Virchow was born on October 13, 1821, in Schivelbein, Prussia. He studied medicine in Berlin and graduated as a medical doctor in 1843. He published a journal with his friend, Benino Reinhardt, which was later renamed “Virchow’s Archives”. To this day, it continues to publish cutting-edge research articles on human pathology.

Virchow recognized the importance of the microscope for its ability to view the cell’s activities. He made advancements in science and human anatomy using this tool. One of these was discovering the cell theory’s last principle in 1850 when he observed the process of cell division.

Contributions

• All cells come from preexisting cells. Virchow added the final principle of the cell theory. It supports biogenesis, which states that living organisms arise from other living organisms. He emphasized that cells are formed by the division of other cells, either through mitosis or meiosis.

• Cellular pathology. According to Virchow, diseases arose in individual cells rather than tissues or organs. He argued that abnormalities and trauma within the cell caused it to manifest in tissues and organs.

• Embolism connection to metastatic inflammation. Virchow coined the terms “thrombus” and “embolism”. An embolism is the blockage of a blood vessel by an embolus (e.g. blood clot). Metastatic inflammation refers to inflammation caused by the spread of cancer cells.

He speculated that embolism was the most common cause of metastatic inflammation of the lungs. He was able to confirm this by comparing several cases. He also observed that thrombosis was present in these blood vessels where the cancer cells were.

• Medical Education in Germany. Virchow was a teacher at the University of Würzburg and the University of Berlin. His expansive knowledge of medicine, coupled with a passion for teaching, produced many brilliant minds. Some even became famous scientists.

Publications

• Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie, und für klinische Medizin (Archives for Pathological Anatomy and Physiology, and for Clinical Medicine) (now Virchow’s Archives)
• Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre (Cellular Pathology as Based upon Physiological and Pathological Histology)
• Handbuch der speziellen Pathologie und Therapie (Handbook of Special Pathology and Therapeutics)

Who are the scientists who contributed to histology?

Aside from Bichat, other notable scientists who made contributions to the development of histology are Schwann, Schleiden, Cajal, and Ehrlich.

• Schwann

Theodor Schwann was a German physiologist known for his contributions to developing the cell theory. He and Matthias Schleiden proposed that cells are the basic structural unit of life. Specifically, he stated that cells are the fundamental unit of animal structure.

Schwann also identified the role of the myelin sheath covering the axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). These were named Schwann cells. They are responsible for insulating axons to facilitate faster transmission of electrical impulses.

• Schlieden

Matthias Jakob Schleiden is a German botanist who proposed that cells are the fundamental unit of plant structure. He and Schwann collaborated to find a unit of organisms similar to both plants and animals.

Schwann also did research on cytogenesis. He recognized the importance of the nucleus in cell formation. He described the cell division process and included the activities of the nucleus. However, a more detailed version of cell division was developed at a later time.

• Cajal

Santiago Ramón y Cajal was a Spanish histologist and neuroscientist. He is credited for establishing the neuron as the fundamental unit of the nervous system. It revolutionized our understanding of the brain and the nervous system.

The properties of nervous tissues and other components of the nervous system are distinct from the rest of the body. Cajal developed the gold stain so you could clearly visualize the neurons and differentiate them from other cells. It is also useful for diagnosing brain tumors.

• Ehrlich

Paul Ehrlich is a German scientist known for developing dyeing and staining techniques. These allowed you to study various cells that could be better viewed with specific dyes (e.g. erythrocytes and leukocytes). It was also significant in the diagnosis of anemia, leukemia, and other blood disorders.

The principle of chemical affinity should be considered when staining. Ehrlich discovered that histological dyes could be acidic, basic, or neutral. They should be paired according to the pH of the tissue or cell.

Who studies histology?

Before knowing who studies histology, you must first know the meaning of histology. Histology is the study of tissues. It involves examining the structure of tissues in relation to their functions. The findings on human tissues enhanced our understanding of diseases.

Professions related to medicine, biology, healthcare, and research study histology. In medicine, histologists and histopathologists use tissue knowledge in the patient’s treatment. They assist other health professionals by analyzing tissue samples under the microscope.

Medical students also benefit from histology. It was made into a prerequisite subject designed to lay a foundation for more advanced medical concepts. A solid understanding of histology will help students grasp the intricate details of human anatomy.

Other healthcare professionals (nurses and physical therapists) study histology to treat tissue- related injuries. They need to be informed about how first-aid procedures and therapy can affect wounds, lacerations, or bruises. For example, discoloration can be a sign of tissue trauma.

Histology can also answer questions on how tissues are affected by drugs and medicine. Pharmacologists and pharmacists must learn histology to ensure that any medicine is safe to consume. They must know the right dosage so as not to cause harm to patients.

Biomedical researchers also study histology to expand the existing literature in this field. New applications can be discovered through past findings by scientists. Human histology can also be compared to plant histology and the histology of other animals.

What is the purpose of histologic examination?

Histologic examinations are when tissue samples are examined under a microscope. It is performed to check for abnormalities in cells or tissues. A histologic examination is carried out by a histopathologist or a pathologist.

These physicians do a histological examination to diagnose diseases. They assess whether a tumor is malignant (cancerous) or benign. They also check for infections, inflammations, and autoimmune diseases. It confirms the suspicions of physicians from the patient’s physical examination.

A histologic examination is also useful for understanding tissue function and structure. Through the years, observation of tissue specimens has led to the accumulation of valuable information. For example, people can now differentiate a healthy tissue from a diseased one.

Types of histological examination

There are two methods for performing histological examination: standard and urgent. They differ based on the purpose and duration. You use standard for routine, non-emergency procedures. It can be for annual follow-up check-ups or benign tumors.

In a standard histological examination, tissue preparation lasts for several hours or days. The process of tissue preparation, which involves fixing up to staining, will take its usual duration.

When the patient is going to have emergency surgery, you request an urgent histological examination. It is when the state of the tissue or cells must be found within the hour. It provides crucial information to guide medical decisions, which can be life or death for the patient.

What is the aim of histology?

The primary aim of histology is to determine how tissues are organized across various structural levels. This allows us to comprehend how different tissues maintain a healthy body or heal or regenerate from a disease.

Histology also aims to study how tissue and cell structure correlate to their function. It is essential to learn how they interact. Further research can be done on this principle. It offers new opportunities for improving diagnostics to address emerging health issues.

It was mentioned previously that histology is useful for diagnosing diseases. More diseases are emerging. Histology remains a crucial tool that is helpful for identifying the causative agents of such diseases.

Conclusion

Histology changed the course of medicine and healthcare. It has become an essential tool in saving and improving the lives of people. It is useful for diagnosing diseases, understanding the structure and function of tissues, and tracking disease progression.

Many scientists, such as Bichat and Virchow, contributed to the field of histology and pathology. Their discoveries and developments led to new theories that were later proven by other scientists. Using their findings, today’s scientists further our understanding of the human body.

References:

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2024, July 18). Marie-François-Xavier Bichat. Britannica.

Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marie-Francois-Xavier-Bichat

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2024, October 13). Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Britannica.

Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Santiago-Ramon-y-Cajal.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2025, January 7). Theodor Schwann. Britannica.

Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Theodor-Schwann.

Dettmeyer, R. B. (2014). The role of histopathology in forensic practice: An overview. Forensic Science      Medicine       and         Pathology,    (10)3.                 DOI:             10.1007/s12024-014-9536-9 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260430981_The_role_of_histopathology_in_ forensic_practice_An_overview#:~:text=The%20role%20of%20forensic%20histopatholo gy,abnormal%20findings%20made%20at%20autopsy.

Edwards, S. (2013, January 16). Rudolph Virchow, the father of cellular pathology. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved from https://www.aaas.org/taxonomy/term/10/rudolph-virchow-father-cellular-

pathology#:~:text=Rudolph%20Virchow%20(1821%2D1902),of%20the%20dysfunction% 20of%20cells.

Father of Histology – Know about Marie François Xavier Bichat in detail!. (2023, September 7).

Testbook. Retrieved from https://testbook.com/articles/father-of-histology

Green, A., Duhli, N., Balija, S. Jain, M., Joseph, L., Shaw, M., Vydianath, B., Martland, G., Clark, M., El-Shanawany, T., Gray, C., Lishman, S., Pugh, A., Wilkins, B., & Haynes, H. (n.d.). Histopathology. Association of Clinical Pathologists. Retrieved from https://pathologists.org.uk/specialities/histopathology/#:~:text=Histopathologists%20do%20not%20work%20in,and%20many%20other%20healthcare%20workers.

histologic       examination.      (n.d.).       National      Cancer      Institute.          Retrieved            from https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/histologic-examination

Histological                    Examination.                     (n.d.).                     Retrieved                            from https://www.okc.com.ua/en/endoscopy/histological-examination

Krinshikato. (2019, July 5). Equipments used Histopathology. Slideshare. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/equipments-used-histopathology/153719732

Marie François Xavier Bichat. (2024, June 7). Neurosurgery Education Wiki. Retrieved from https://neurosurgery.education/wiki/doku.php?id=marie_francois_xavier_bichat

Underwood,    A.     (2024,     October    9).    Rudolf    Virchow.     Britannica.             Retrieved      from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rudolf-Virchow

Parker, S. (2017, May 29). Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1804–1881). Embryo Project Encyclopedia. https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/matthias-jacob-schleiden-1804-1881#:~:text=Schleiden%20studied%20cells%20as%20the,an%20organizing%20principle%20of%20biology.

Shoja, M., Tubbs, S., Loukas, M., Shokouhi, G., & Ardalan, M. (2008). Marie-François Xavier Bichat (1771–1802) and his contributions to the foundations of pathological anatomy and modern medicine. Annals of Anatomy – Anatomischer Anzeiger, (190)5, 413-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aanat.2008.07.004

Titford, M. (2010). Paul Ehrlich: Histological Staining, Immunology, Chemotherapy. Laboratory Medicine, (41)8, 497–498. https://doi.org/10.1309/LMHJS86N5ICBIBWM

The Royal College of Pathologists. (2018, November 5). What is a Histopathologist?. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jBDsiUw0YQg

Written by Kyle Peter Josh Bernaldez Deluvio

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Try to picture an airport with a control tower. Through observation, you can see several airplanes. You can see them arriving and departing in an organized and systematic manner. Why? This is because of the airport’s control tower. It navigates planes by directing them when to take off and land. Now, the airport’s control tower functions in a similar manner to the cell’s nucleus. The cell’s nucleus coordinates several activities of the cell. This includes gene expression, growth, and reproduction. Like the airport, the cell will be in total disarray without the nucleus. This will result in consequences to the total function of the human body.

Hence, the nucleus is an essential structure in the cell. It holds the blueprint of life, the instructions for growth, and the codes for development. The nucleus necessitates the progression of human life.

Structure and Function

The nucleus is a spherical structure situated at the center of the cell. Although its shape is often spherical, it usually conforms to the shape of the cell. Furthermore, it serves as a repository for the cell’s hereditary material. The genetic material, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), includes instructions necessary for the body’s development.

Apart from housing genetic information, the nucleus also has the following functions:

• Serves as the cell’s control center.
• Serves as the site for DNA replication, transcription, and RNA processing.
• Regulates protein and enzyme synthesis
• Controls heredity
• Controls cell growth and cell division
• Production of ribosomes

To better understand the functions listed, exploring the parts of the nucleus is vital.

Parts of the Nucleus

A double-membrane structure, called the nuclear envelope, encloses the nucleus. Tiny channels are also present in the membrane, called nuclear pores. Furthermore, the nucleolus is found deeper into the nucleus.

The substance that resembles the cytoplasm and fills the nucleus is called the nucleoplasm. Moreover, found beneath the inner nuclear membrane is called the nuclear lamina.

(1)  Nuclear Envelope.

• It is a double-membrane structure, each made out of a phospholipid bilayer. It serves as the barrier of the nucleus that regulates what passes through it. It encloses a jelly-like fluid called the nucleoplasm. In it, suspended are other nuclear elements are suspended in it.
• The outer membrane attaches to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Like the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the nuclear envelope has ribosomes attached to it.
• The inner membrane is where nucleus-unique proteins attach.

(2)  Nuclear Pores.

• It controls the movement of macromolecules, which is called nuclear transport.

(3)  Nucleolus

• These condensed regions of chromosomes are where ribosomal RNA is being synthesized. Such ribosomal RNA are essential components of ribosomes.

• This serves as the site for the assemblage of ribosomes and sites for protein synthesis.

(4)  Nucleoplasm

• It is the same with the cytoplasm. It is semi-liquid, and it fills the nucleus of the cell.
• It surrounds the chromosomes and nucleoli inside the nucleus.
• The nucleoplasm of the nucleus also has elements dissolved in it. These elements are proteins and enzymes.

(5)  Nuclear Lamina

• It is made up of V intermediate filament proteins called lamin proteins
• It provides structural and mechanical support to the nucleus of the cell.It helps in the proper positioning of the nucleus in the cell.
• It is significant in ensuring the proper organization of chromatin inside the nucleus.

What is the origin of the nucleus?

There are several approaches to understanding the origin of the nucleus. Two of the accepted approaches include: the invagination theory and the endosymbiont theory.

(1)  The Invagination Theory of the Nucleus

This theory asserts that the nucleus of the cell originated from the invagination. It proposes that the invagination occurred in a very ancient anaerobic archaeon.

It demonstrates that a segment of the cell membrane folded inwards (invaginated). This enclosed the genetic material attached to that segment of the cell membrane.

In succeeding generations, the cell formed a two-layered envelope that surrounded the DNA. It is a presumption that the envelope, later on, pinched off from the plasma membrane.

From there, the nuclear compartment of the cell existed. Several channels, called nuclear pores, penetrated the compartment. This enabled communication with the cytosol.

This compartmentalization serves as an advantage for the nucleus. It provides better organization and protection for the genetic material inside the nucleus.

Furthermore, other membranes of the invaginated membrane may have served other purposes. For instance, it may have formed the endoplasmic reticulum. This explains the continuity of the space. The space between the layers of the nuclear envelope and the endoplasmic reticulum.

(2)  The endosymbiont theory of the nucleus

This theory suggests that the cell’s nucleus originated from a prokaryotic cell. Later on, an amoeboid cell engulfed the prokaryotic cell. After engulfment, the amoeboid cell made the prokaryotic cell its own nucleus.

In essence, the theory asserts that the nucleus is an integrated structure. According to this theory, the nucleus was a former independent structure. After the bacteria-like organism was inside another cell, its functions ceased. Meanwhile, it contributed its genetic material to the host cell that engulfed it.

Mereschkowsky (2010) proposed this theory of the origin of the nucleus.

Why is the nucleus the most important part of the cell?

The nucleus is the most important part of the cell because of several reasons. The reasons all revolve around one common understanding — the nucleus regulates cellular activities.

The nucleus contains genetic material called DNA. DNA is an essential part of human development as it holds instructions. The instructions that it holds are essential for the synthesis of proteins. Also, they are important for the synthesis of proteins.

The nucleus regulates what genes to silence and express. In this sense, the nucleus is responsible for several processes and mechanisms. This includes metabolism, growth and development, repair and replication,

The nucleus ensures proper cell division and replication. The nucleus ensures that the daughter cells contain an identical set of chromosomes. This is vital for the survival and growth of the new cells.

Ribosomal production also happens inside the nucleus. Serving as the site for ribosomal production, the nucleus necessitates protein synthesis.

What is the main function of the nucleolus?

The nucleolus is a large ribosome-producing factory. It is the nuclear compartment where transcription of the ribosomal RNAs occurs. Furthermore, it is also where the assemblage of the ribosomal subunits occurs.

In essence, the nucleolus has RNA products. These products are then combined with proteins to form ribosomes. Moreover, the ribosomes are exported to the cytosol. The cytosol is the site where translation will take place.

What happens if the nucleus of a cell is damaged?

Once damage impacts the nucleus of the cell, several possibilities arise. These depend on the severity of the damage, cellular context, and genetic factors.

If the damage is less severe, the nucleus has mechanisms in store. These include self-sealing and repair mechanisms. In particular, these mechanisms are responsible for mending the damaged nuclear membrane.

The following are among the restoring abilities of the cell:

• The self-sealing capabilities of the lipid bilayer covering the nucleus. When there is a tear in the nuclear membrane, exposure of the hydrophobic centers occurs. The hydrophobic parts attract each other. This allows them to connect and immediately heal.
• Cellular context of the nucleus. When the cell is undergoing mitosis or cell division, the cell can repair itself.
• The Role of Nuclear Pore Complexes (NPCs). These complexes are large protein assemblies. They regulate the shuttle system of molecules inside and out of the nucleus. With regards to repair, they help seal and stabilize the nuclear envelope.

Yet, if the damage is, to an extent, severe, the nucleus fails to repair itself. This leads to its eventual death. This usually happens when there is severe mechanical stress. Furthermore, it also occurs when there is cellular aging or senescence.

If the nucleus cannot sustain the damage, it will have immediate and long-term effects. These include the following:

• Nuclear envelope rupture. It is a fact that the nuclear envelope maintains the integrity of the nucleus. When the envelope ruptures, cytoplasmic and nuclear components interact. This, then, disrupts cellular processes. In particular, this infringes on the transcription and translation processes.
• DNA damage. The exposure of the cell’s DNA to the cytoplasmic membranes leads to consequences. For instance, it leads to fragmentation or the loss of genetic material. Furthermore, this leads to cellular stress response and apoptosis (cell death).
• Genomic instability. Nuclear damage results in several issues related to the cell’s genetic material. It is often related to mutations and an increased risk of cancer.
• Increased risk of disease. Diseases, such as cancers, often arise. This is when compromise happens to nuclear function and DNA damage occurs.

Can a cell survive without a nucleus?

The cell type dictates whether the cell survives with or without a nucleus. If the cell type is a prokaryotic cell, it tends to function well. This is because the genetic material of the cell is not located inside the nucleus. Instead, the cell’s instructions tend to situate in a region called the nucleoid.

In this sense, bacteria and archaea — considered prokaryotes — survive without a nucleus. Additionally, other cell types, such as erythrocytes and platelets, also thrive.

Yet, if the cell is a eukaryotic cell, the cell will not survive. This is because an integral aspect of the cell is its nucleus. Serving as the control center of the cell, it regulates cell function. It controls cell activity and ushers the gene expression.

Without the nucleus, the cell will die. Examples of these cells include nerve cells, muscle cells, and epithelial cells. These are essential for the proper functioning of the human body.

Do all cells have a nucleus?

Not all cells have a nucleus. For instance, prokaryotic cells do not have one. Unlike the eukaryotic cell, it does not have a nucleus to enclose its genetic material.

More information on prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells or prokaryotes are single-celled organisms. They are often spherical, rod-shaped, or corkscrew-shaped. They are small, ranging up to a few micrometers long.

Despite the absence of the nucleus, the prokaryotes still have their DNA. Their DNA, or genetic material, is arranged in an irregular-shaped region called the nucleoid. This region is essential in storing the prokaryotic cell’s genetic material.

Prokaryotes, like eukaryotes, have a cell membrane. Instead of the nucleus, the cell membrane is present. The cell membrane is in control of enclosing the cell’s genetic material.

Examples of organisms that lack a nucleus are bacteria, archaea, and blue-green algae. In particular, they include Escherichia coli, Cyanobacteria, Streptococcus, and many more.

Other cells that do not have a nucleus

Mature red blood cells (erythrocytes) also do not have a nucleus. These specialized cells are accountable for the transport of oxygen across the body. The lack of a nucleus is an important characteristic of red blood cells. In fact, it contributes to its biconcave shape and flexibility. Moreover, it provides more space for hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen.

Hence, not all cells have a nucleus. But all cells have DNA.

Conclusion

Comparable to a plane’s command center, the cell nucleus coordinates all of the vital processes necessary for efficient and seamless operation. The nucleus contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material that functions as the coordinator for all cellular functions, much like the command center of the airport that directs the arrival and departure of numerous aircraft.

Similar to how the nucleus uses messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid) to coordinate protein synthesis, communication systems in the plane transmit commands to various components.

Just as a cell would stop functioning without the systematic direction of its nucleus, the plane would lose direction and coherence without this crucial command center. Ultimately, the nucleus is essential in regulating cellular processes and functions, all vital to life.

Ultimately, the nucleus is responsible for ensuring the complex machinery of the cell follows a systematic, orderly, and organized process. As part of the bigger picture, it ensures that the “flight” of life proceeds without significant barriers or consequences. Without the nucleus, we will undoubtedly be in complete disarray — especially with where we are headed.

References:

Al-Muhtaseb, T. (2021). Building a Tensegrity-Based Computational Model to Understand Endothelial Alignment Under Flow. https://doi.org/10.7912/C2/102

Baxter,            R.            (2020,            October            29).            Cell            nucleus.           Kenhub. https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/cell-nucleus

Cooper, G. M. (2000). The Nucleus. The Cell: A Molecular Approach. 2nd Edition, 2(Chapter 8). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9845/

Dean, L. (2005). Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens. National Library of Medicine; National Center for Biotechnology Information (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2263/

Gauthier, B. R., & Comaills, V. (2021). Nuclear Envelope Integrity in Health and Disease: Consequences on Genome Instability and Inflammation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(14), 7281. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22147281

Isermann, P., & Lammerding, J. (2017). Consequences of a tight squeeze: Nuclear envelope rupture and repair. Nucleus, 8(3), 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/19491034.2017.1292191

Lodé, T. (2012). For Quite a Few Chromosomes More: The Origin of Eukaryotes…. Journal of Molecular Biology, 423(2), 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2012.07.005

Maciejowski, J., & Hatch, E. M. (2020). Nuclear Membrane Rupture and Its Consequences. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, 36(1), 85–114. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-cellbio-020520-120627

Marieb, E. N., & Keller, S. M. (2022). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology (13th ed.). Pearson. Martin, W. F., Garg, S., & Zimorski, V. (2015). Endosymbiotic theories for eukaryote origin.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 370(1678), 20140330. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0330

Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., & Case, C. L. (2019). Microbiology: An Introduction (13th ed.). Pearson.

Written by Yara Patrice Formento

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Angina pectoris, or angina, is chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart. It is not a disease, but it is a symptom of underlying cardiovascular conditions such as coronary artery disease (CAD).

Angina manifests when the myocardium does not receive enough oxygen-rich blood. Angina occurs either when the heart is pumping hard or at rest, depending on the severity of the underlying factor.

Mayo Clinic describes angina as squeezing, pressure, tightness, and burning in the chest as if something heavy is pressing against the chest. It may also feel like indigestion or heartburn.

The discomfort can radiate to the shoulders, arms, neck, jaw, and back, similar to a heart attack. However, angina subsides with rest or specific medication, unlike a heart attack.

According to Hermiz and Sedhai (2023), chronic stable angina affects approximately 30,000 to 40,000 people per million people in Western countries. It is important to note that not all chest pain is angina and that it manifests differently for everyone.

Generally, when the myocardium lacks oxygen due to inadequate blood supply, this results in angina pectoris.

When the heart beats rapidly, the myocardium may receive inadequate oxygen-rich blood supply because relaxation periods (when the blood can flow to the heart tissue) are short-ended.

It can also be due to the narrowing and blocking of coronary arteries by atherosclerotic or lipid plaque. This condition is called coronary artery disease (CAD). As a consequence, a rupture or blood clot may occur.

Additionally, when the heart muscle does not receive enough oxygen, it causes ischemia.

1. At the cellular level, ischemia causes an increase in anaerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic glycolysis refers to the production of energy in the cells without oxygen. The end product of anaerobic glycolysis is two pyruvate molecules, which are then converted to lactic acid (lactate) for glycolysis to continue.
2. Anaerobic glycolysis increases the levels of hydrogen (pH), potassium, and lactate in the affected area of the myocardium.
3. The hydrogen ions compete with calcium ions, causing hypokinesia (reduced movement) or akinesia (no movement) in the affected area.
4. The affected cells also release adenosine and bradykinin. These chemicals stimulate nearby pain receptors (nociceptors).
5. The build-up of carbon dioxide and a drop in the pH due to anaerobic metabolism contributes to the sensation of pain.
6. Next, the pain signals travel along sympathetic nerve fibers and the vagus nerve, which send these signals to the brain, resulting in the perception of chest pain.
7. The activated sympathetic nervous system causes secondary symptoms such as sweating, anxiety, increased heart rate, and distress.

One should not ignore angina. The oxygen-deprived heart cells may die when prolonged, forming an infarct area. This results in myocardial infarction, more commonly known as heart attack.

What can trigger angina?

When a person is at risk for heart disease or coronary artery disease, he or she is also at risk for angina. Risk factors for people to develop coronary artery disease (CAD) include:

• Smoking and tobacco use
• High blood pressure
• Increasing age
• Diabetes
• High cholesterol levels
• Obesity
• Type “A” or Alpha personalities (refers to individuals who are consistently working and experience higher stress levels than most individuals)
• Emotional stress
• Drug abuse
• Sedentary lifestyle
• Genetics
• Medicines
• Cold temperatures
• Other health conditions such as chronic kidney disease, peripheral artery disease, metabolic syndrome, or stroke history

Most of these risk factors can be modified by changing diet and sedentary habits and controlled through medication. However, some risk factors are uncontrollable, such as genetics, age, and gender.

For instance, according to Tortora and Derrickson (2009), adult males are more likely than adult females to develop CAD. However, after age 70, all the risk factors are roughly equal. Smoking is the leading risk factor in all CAD-associated diseases, increasing the risk of morbidity and mortality.

What are the symptoms of an angina attack?

According to the Mayo Clinic, symptoms of angina include:

• Chest pain or pressure
• Intense sweating
• Difficulty catching breath
• Pain in the arm, neck, jaw, and shoulder
• Nausea
• Fatigue
• Feeling of gas or indigestion
• Fluctuating chest pain

Chest pain occurring with angina can make executing simple activities uncomfortable, but the most dangerous complication is a heart attack. The warning symptoms of a heart attack include:

• Pressure, fullness, or a squeezing pain in the chest that lasts for more than a few minutes
• Pain extending beyond the chest to the shoulder, arm, or back, and even to the teeth and jaw
• Fainting
• Threatening sense of doom
• Nausea and vomiting
• Continued pain in the upper belly area
• Shortness of breath
• Sweating

A person experiencing these symptoms must seek immediate medical help from a healthcare professional. The healthcare professional will perform a physical exam and ask about symptoms and risk factors, such as the family history of heart disease and other health conditions.

Where is angina pain located?

Angina pain primarily occurs in the chest area, yet it may also radiate to the neck, shoulders, and arms, especially the left arm, back, and jaw.

How long does angina pain last?

The duration of angina pain varies depending on its type. Angina due to the blockage of coronary arteries is classified into three categories:

1. Stable angina is the most common form of angina during exertion or activity. It disappears with rest or by taking medicine for angina. It is also predictable, similar to previous episodes of chest pain, and lasts a short time, approximately five minutes or less.
2. Unstable angina is unpredictable and occurs at rest. It is typically severe and lasts longer than stable angina, approximately for more than 20 minutes. Prolonged unstable angina can lead to myocardial infarction or heart attack due to the lack of oxygen in the heart. Generally, it is dangerous and requires emergency treatment.
3. Variant angina, or Prinzmetal angina, is caused by spasms in the heart’s arteries rather than coronary artery disease (CAD). The spasm temporarily reduces blood flow, with severe chest pain as the main symptom. It often occurs in cycles, from rest and overnight. It can be relieved by taking angina medicine.

Moreover, suppose a healthcare professional thinks that a patient has unstable angina or a severe underlying factor. In that case, tests such as an electrocardiogram, stress test, blood tests, chest x- rays, coronary angiography, cardiac catheterization, and computer tomography angiography may be done.

• Electrocardiogram. It records the heart’s electrical activity and shows whether a person is at an increased risk for heart attack.
• Stress test. A person walks on a treadmill to elevate their heart rate while receiving an electrocardiogram. The test reveals whether the heart gets enough oxygen-rich blood when physically exerted.
• Blood test The presence of substances in the blood, such as troponin, can indicate whether a person is at an increased risk for a heart attack. High levels of troponin indicate whether a person is having or has had a heart attack.
• Chest x-ray.
• CT scan. It assesses the calcium build-up or blood flow in the coronary arteries.
• Holter monitor. A device is worn for 24 hours or longer to record and look for abnormalities in the heart rhythm.
• Coronary angiography. A procedure wherein contrast dye is injected into the bloodstream to reveal, through X-ray images, possible blockages within coronary arteries.
• Cardiac catheterization. A general procedure wherein a doctor inserts a catheter into a large blood vessel. It can be used for angiography, angioplasty (when the catheter is used to clear a blocked artery and valvuloplasty (when the catheter is used to widen a narrow heart valve).

What is the fastest way to stop angina?

The fastest way to stop an angina attack is through medication, specifically nitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin is a nitrate that causes the coronary arteries to widen, increasing blood flow.

Nitroglycerin is placed under the tongue when a person first feels discomfort and pain and should relieve angina within 5 minutes. Long-acting nitrates, diagnosed by physicians for patients to take daily, help prevent angina attacks.

Other medications to stop angina include:

• Beta blockers. They decrease the heart rate, reduce the risk of abnormal heart rhythms, and decrease blood pressure.
• Calcium channel blockers. An alternative to beta blockers for people with asthma or chronic obstructive lung disease, heart block and related conduction system abnormalities, and peripheral artery disease. They lower blood pressure and widen coronary arteries.
• Aspirin. It prevents the formation of blood clots in diseased blood vessels, which are the leading cause of heart attack and stroke.
• Statins. An umbrella term for drugs used to lower cholesterol. They also reduce inflammation in blood vessels and prevent plaque from breaking open.
• ACE inhibitors. They help relax blood vessels throughout the body.
• Ranolazine. It reduces the amount of oxygen the heart needs to do its work.

Moreover, when medical therapy does not relieve angina and if it suddenly progresses, more invasive treatments may be required.

An angioplasty is a surgical procedure wherein the doctor inserts a catheter into an artery in the groin or arm and then carefully maneuvers it into the blocked artery. Next, the doctor inflates a balloon at the artery’s tip, flattening the plaque that is blocking the artery.

• Sometimes, the balloon also expands a wire mesh stent to hold the artery open and leaves it in place.
• This process can take 30 minutes to several hours. A patient usually stays in the hospital at least overnight. The healthcare team tells them when they can return to their daily activities.
• Sometimes, the blockage returns after an angioplasty. Using a stent coated with medicine can help prevent this.

If unstable angina or stable angina affects some of the leading heart arteries and does not improve with stenting and other treatments, heart bypass surgery may be needed.

Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting is a surgical procedure wherein a surgeon uses a blood vessel from another part of the body to make a new channel. It diverts blood around the blocked coronary artery.

However, prevention is better than cure. Aside from medication and medical procedures, the best way to treat angina is to change one’s lifestyle ultimately. This includes but is not limited to:

• Stopping tobacco use and smoking. Smoking contributes to atherosclerosis, or the build- up of plaque in the arteries, which reduces blood and oxygen supply throughout the body. If a person needs help quitting, he/she should consult his/her healthcare team about therapies that can help.
• Losing weight if needed. Obesity accelerates early atherosclerotic changes, including the development of fatty streaks. It is associated with blood pressure, dyslipidemia, and hyperglycemia.
• Lowering blood sugar, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels. It concerns having a healthy diet, exercising regularly, managing emotional health, and quitting smoking.
• Adjusting daily activities. If a certain kind of activity can cause angina, try performing the activity more slowly. Also, since the heart is more stressed in the mornings and after meals, try reducing physical activities.
• Reducing stress and anger. Anger and stress activate the sympathetic nervous system and cause high blood pressure, as if in a “fight or flight” situation. If anger and stress regularly trigger angina, a stress-reduction program or meditation can help.
• Exercising regularly. A supervised exercise can safely strengthen the heart and gradually reduce angina.
• Having a healthy diet. A healthy diet can fight the cholesterol-filled plaque in atherosclerosis, which is responsible for angina. It can lower weight, blood sugar, and cholesterol levels. Eventually, it will reduce angina.

Is angina life-threatening?

Angina itself is not life-threatening. However, the underlying factors or diseases that it indicates can be life-threatening. Thus, it is crucial to address angina symptoms immediately and appropriately, such as going to the doctor, to avoid further complications.

References

Angina (Chest Pain). (2021). American Heart Organization. https://www.heart.org/en/health- topics/heart-attack/angina-chest-pain

Angina – Symptoms and causes. (n.d.). Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases- conditions/angina/symptoms-causes/syc-20369373

Angina treatment: Stents, drugs, lifestyle changes — What’s best? (2023, May 27). Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/coronary-artery-disease/in-depth/angina- treatment/art-20046240

Cardiac Catheterization. (2023). American Heart Association. https://www.heart.org/en/health- topics/heart-attack/diagnosing-a-heart-attack/cardiac-catheterization

Harvard Health. (2021, September 21). Angina: Symptoms, diagnosis and treatments. https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/angina-symptoms-diagnosis-and-treatments

Hermiz, C., & Sedhai, Y. R. (2023, June 6). Angina. StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557672/

National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). Angina. Chest Pain | MedlinePlus. https://medlineplus.gov/angina.html

What      is      Angina?      |       NHLBI,       NIH.       (2023,      June      30).               NHLBI,                NIH.

https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/angina

Written by Paige Fernandez

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Your arteries supply blood and oxygen to your heart muscle. The obstruction of your arteries results in Myocardial Infarction (MI). It is also known as a heart attack. Unattended can cause severe cardiac damage and even death. You can recognize symptoms earlier once you know the early warning signs of MI.

Early identification and treatment are critical for decreasing the severity of MI. Heart attacks are the most significant cause of mortality globally. Nonetheless, many people can avoid these cases with lifestyle changes and increased knowledge. Understanding these features will enable you to preserve cardiovascular health. You will also be able to identify signs needing prompt medical intervention.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is one of the primary causes of Myocardial Infarction. MI happens when plaque buildup obstructs a coronary artery. This is a process called Atherosclerosis. With time, this occurs when a blockage of cholesterol forms inside the arterial walls. These substances cause the narrowing of arteries and delay blood flow. Over time, the plaque hardens and reduces the space through which blood flows. If the plaque breaks, a blood clot can form at the site, completely blocking blood flow to the heart muscle. Other causes of MI include Coronary Artery Spasms and Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection.

Coronary artery spasms are sudden tightening of the walls within a coronary artery. The constriction can cut off the blood flow, which causes the oxygen for the heart muscle to no longer flow. But, these spasms are brief and can result in chest pain or even a Myocardial Infarction (heart attack). Several factors trigger coronary artery spasms, including:

• Drug Use. Stimulants like cocaine can cause spasms when blood pressure and heart rate increase. Cocaine is notorious for inducing extreme vasoconstriction. It also adds to the likelihood of spasms even in normal arteries.
• Extreme and Constant Stress. When your body is under stress, it releases adrenaline and stress hormones. They may then cause muscles around the coronary arteries to spasm. People with high blood pressure may suffer spasm attacks at times of intense stress.
• Cold Exposure. Sometimes, cold weather constricts the blood vessels and causes spasms.
• Smoking. Nicotine also induces vasoconstriction. This increases the probability of coronary artery spasms, particularly in chronic smokers.

An example of Coronary Artery Spasms is Variant Angina (Prinzmetal’s Angina). This is a type of angina due to coronary artery spasms. Unlike angina, which occurs with physical exertion, variant angina can occur at rest. Variant Angina often happens in the early morning. They can induce agonizing spasms that resemble the discomfort of an MI.

Cocaine-induced coronary spasm is another example. A person using cocaine may undergo sudden spasms that present as severe chest pain. That’s because not only does it constrict the blood vessels, but it speeds up the heart rate. Additionally, it raises blood pressure, which strains the heart.

Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection (SCAD) is a rare but severe disorder involving the coronary artery wall. This tear can cause a blockage of blood flow to the heart. Blood pools between the layers of the artery wall and creates a blockage.

SCAD occurs most in younger women without the usual ‘heart attack’ risk factors. Potential causes and contributing factors include:

• Hormonal Changes. SCAD connects to pregnancy or childbirth. It appears more common during pregnancy and the perinatal period after birth.
• Physical or emotional stress of great intensity. SCAD also occurs due to high stress levels. Stress levels vary, whether it’s stress induced by exercise or emotional trauma.
• Inherited Connective Tissue Disorders. Ehlers–Danlos syndrome and Marfan syndrome affect the structure of blood vessel walls. People with these inherited disorders are susceptible to SCAD.

SCAD examples include Postpartum SCAD. For many women, SCAD occurs in the weeks or months after giving birth.

Exercise-induced SCAD is another example. Individuals who do strenuous activities may exhibit SCAD episodes. These episodes happen before any other symptoms of cardiac disease.

Uncommon but life-threatening causes of heart attacks include SCAD and coronary artery spasms. Recognition of these conditions can help recognize the symptoms of Myocardial infarctions.

As a preventable condition, CAD helps you understand how to take proactive steps to lower MI risk. Managing atherosclerosis factors can reduce your chance of experiencing a Myocardial Infarction.

What Are the Warning Signs of a Myocardial Infarction?

Common warning signs include chest tightness, shortness of breath, dizziness, and upper-body pain. Early recognition of Myocardial Infarction symptoms can save a life. Immediate treatment can cut heart damage in half. The following are typical symptoms:

• Chest Pain or Discomfort. Chest discomfort is a sensation of strain or pressure that spreads from the arms to the back.
• Shortness of Breath. It can be a warning sign for difficulty breathing, sometimes without effort.
• Perspiration and dizziness. Some people get sudden sweating or nausea, like severe anxiety or indigestion.
• Upper Body Discomfort. Chest pain may come with discomfort in areas like the shoulder, back, and stomach, or it can go alone.

Women, diabetics, and older individuals are more likely to have atypical symptoms. These symptoms include:

• Back Pain. Problems with your back are often misinterpreted as muscle pain, but they can also display MI.

• Unexplained Fatigue. Sudden, unexpected fatigue can also come before a heart attack, especially in women.
• Lightheadedness. It may mean the blood isn’t flowing well, as an impending or happening MI brings.

Symptoms vary and may not manifest in you the way they would manifest in another person. Nonetheless, a rare or delayed onset of MI symptoms might have destructive outcomes. Additionally, it results in delayed detection of the medical emergency. Knowing these variations can help you start treatment on time.

What Is the First Marker of Myocardial Infarction?

The first and more sensitive marker of a myocardial infarction is troponin. Myocardial infarction requires cardiovascular biomarkers for its diagnosis. Of these markers, troponin is the most sensitive and specific. Troponin levels rise when there is damage to heart muscle cells. They become identifiable in the blood in a few hours following an MI and continuing high for a period of two weeks.

An example of high-accuracy testing is troponin testing. Medical providers use it to detect even the most minor heart muscle damage. Other markers that can state Myocardial Infarction include:

• Creatine Kinase-MB (CK-MB). The less exact version of troponin rises within hours to confirm heart muscle damage.
• Myoglobin. Myoglobin is an early marker and is always used together with other tests.

Elevation of cardiac troponin levels may not occur for hours after symptoms develop. Additionally, the window of opportunity for successful intervention is brief. Prompt detection affords a timely diagnosis and facilitates physician intervention. This limits heart muscle damage and improves patient outcomes.

What Tests Confirm a Diagnosis of Myocardial Infarction?

Myocardial infarction diagnosis combines ECG, blood testing for cardiac enzymes, and imaging examinations. Many tests look at heart function and blockages. These tests include:

• Electrocardiogram (ECG). This test records the heart’s electrical activity and patterns that suggest an MI. It can reveal poor blood supply and heart rhythm problems.
• Blood Tests. Troponin and CK-MB values make way for the confirmation of a Myocardial Infarction. Through this, healthcare providers will identify the extent of cardiac damage.
• Imaging Studies.
  • Echocardiography. Echocardiography is an ultrasound test of heart muscle function. This ultrasound test looks for the areas affected by the Myocardial Infarction.
  • Coronary Angiography. This imaging test uses dye to detect blockages in the coronary arteries. But, it is often done in emergencies.

A combination of diagnostic tools increases accuracy and also makes treatment better. Healthcare providers use many diagnostic methods to create treatment plans. These treatment plans aim to mitigate recovery and survival rates.

Who Is Most at Risk for Myocardial Infarction?

Individuals who have high blood pressure and high cholesterol are at risk of MI. Individuals who smoke and have family histories of heart disease are also at risk. Most of the risk factors associated with MI include those of lifestyle and genetics. Major risk factors include:

• Hypertension. Blood vessels damaged by high blood pressure increase the risk of MI.
• High LDL Cholesterol. Elevated cholesterol leads to debris development in the arteries.
• Diabetes. Elevated blood glucose levels damage your blood vessels and increase the risk of MI.
• Smoking. Tobacco use raises blood clot risk and helps create plaque.
• Family History. People prone to heart disease are likely to suffer a myocardial infarction.

Other factors include age, sex, obesity, and lack of physical activity. Risk is more significant in men early on but rises after menopause in women. The risk of MI is best monitored and managed through lifestyle changes. You can also use routine screening and medication if necessary. Taking preventive measures means you get to act to control your heart health.

Can Stress Cause a Myocardial Infarction?

Stress increases blood pressure, inflammation, and risk of plaque rupture. This can contribute to the development of a Myocardial Infarction.

Physiological responses to stress affect the health of the heart. When you are under stress, hormones like cortisol and adrenaline activate the body. These hormones increase your heart rate and blood pressure. With continued responses, these may increase the occurrence of hypertension and plaque instability. Thus increasing the chance that you will have a heart attack over time. It is a modifiable risk factor for developing CAD and increasing the incidence of MI.

Exercising, meditating, and being mindful can help you manage mental and physical stress. Efforts at regular stress management can help lessen MI risk. This protects your arteries and arterial damage and lowers your blood pressure. Regular stress management contributes to cardiovascular health.

Can Sadness Cause Myocardial Infarction?

Sadness on its own doesn’t exactly cause a Myocardial Infarction. But, it can lead to something called ‘broken heart syndrome.’ This mimics heart attack signs as well as its symptoms.

Intense emotional stress, such as grief, can weaken the heart muscle. This leads to the condition known as ‘broken heart’ syndrome or Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Often, the symptoms resemble those of a heart attack — chest pain and shortness of breath. Broken heart syndrome is usually temporary but can become serious if not addressed. Individuals with pre-existing heart conditions are susceptible to ‘broken heart’ syndrome.

Prolonged sadness and depression may increase MI risk. This is because it contributes to high blood pressure and other risk factors. Research finds a link between the mind and the heart. It supports a holistic approach to heart health that includes emotional well-being. Providing support for emotional health may help with improved heart health. Additionally, it promotes better resilience after traumatic events.

Reducing MI risk requires investing in mental health through support and self-care practices. Besides being essential for quality of life, emotional well-being also impacts your heart.

Conclusion

Myocardial infarction results when there is an obstruction in your coronary arteries. This, in turn, decreases blood and oxygen flow to the cardiac muscle. MI can cause heart failure if not treated. Knowing the factors that may put you at risk for MI may help you detect it early and even save your life.

Preventive approaches have led to a reduction in MI risk. Good dietary habits and regular physical activity will keep your heart healthy. Regular screenings and check-ups can also help detect problems before they worsen.

Understanding, education, and proactive cardiovascular care lay the groundwork for long-term heart health. Recognizing the precursors of MI will better equip you to protect your heart. Through this, you will lessen the likelihood of life-threatening events like Myocardial Infarction. In the long run, these actions must be dominant enough to prevent casualties. Through finding problems earlier, intervening on time, or committing to preventative care.

References

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Aneurysms – Symptoms and causes. (n.d.). Mayo Clinic.

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Khera, A., Lloyd-Jones, D., McEvoy, J. W., Michos, E. D., Miedema, M. D., Muñoz, D., Smith, S. C., Virani,

S. S., Williams, K. A., Yeboah, J., & Ziaeian, B. (2019). 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation, 140(11). https://doi.org/10.1161/cir.0000000000000678

Cohn, J. K., & Cohn, P. F. (2002). Chest pain. Circulation, 106(5), 530–531. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.0000027208.17824.d6

Coronary artery spasm. (2024, May 1). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16900-coronary-spasm

De Souza, P., & Herdy, A. H. (2019). Dissecção Espontânea da Artéria Coronária Relacionada ao Exercício Físico em Pacientes Jovens sem Fatores de Risco ou Doença Aterosclerótica Coronariana. Arquivos Brasileiros De Cardiologia. https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20180446

Heart attack – Medical Dictionary / Glossary | Medindia. (n.d.). https://www.medindia.net/glossary/heart_attack.htm

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Heart disease risk factors. (2024, May 15). Heart Disease. https://www.cdc.gov/heart-disease/risk-factors/index.html

How to cure anteroseptal myocardial infarction? (n.d.). https://moviecultists.com/how-to-cure-anteroseptal-myocardial-infarction

Professional, C. C. M. (2024, July 18). Cardiac enzymes (Cardiac biomarkers). Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22115-cardiac-enzymes-cardiac-biomarkers

Spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD) – Symptoms and causes. (n.d.). Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/spontaneous-coronary-artery-dissection/sympto ms-causes/syc-20353711

What is a heart attack? | NHLBI, NIH. (2022, March 24). NHLBI, NIH. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/heart-attack

Wu, Y., Pan, N., An, Y., Xu, M., Tan, L., & Zhang, L. (2021). Diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for myocardial infarction. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2020.617277

Ziccardi, M. R., & Hatcher, J. D. (2023, July 25). Prinzmetal Angina. StatPearls – NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430776/#:~:text=Prinzmetal%20angina%20(vasospast ic%20angina%20or,to%20abnormal%20coronary%20artery%20spasm.

Written by Chelsea Oaminal

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

The endoplasmic reticulum is one of the cell’s many organelles that are vital to its processes and overall function. It has two components, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough endoplasmic reticulum, both of which serve different purposes to the cell.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) gets its name from the ribosomes that are studded all over its surface. It is composed of long and flattened structures called cisternae, which increase its surface area. These tubules are where the ribosomes are attached to.

The average liver cell’s RER has about 13 million ribosomes. These tiny structures synthesize proteins for the cell. If a cell has a high percentage of RER, it will make more protein.

Eukaryotic cells that specialize in protein production naturally have more ribosomes and a higher percentage of RER.

Proteins are molecules used in the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs. Though some ribosomes are free floating, most of the cell’s ribosomes are located on the RER. This is why it is the organelle most associated with protein synthesis.

On the other hand, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is incredibly visually different from the RER and lacks ribosomes. Instead of protein, it synthesizes lipids such as cholesterol and phospholipids. It also is made up of tubules instead of cisternae.

Lipids are fatty compounds that form cell membranes and perform a variety of other roles in the body. They’re known for moving energy, absorbing vitamins, and producing hormones. In the liver cell, the SER helps detoxify harmful substances.

The SER and RER are both part of a larger group called the endomembrane system, which deals with lipids and proteins in the cell. The other parts of the system include:

• Cell membrane. This organelle regulates what exits and enters the cell. It interacts with the other parts of the endomembrane system and exports proteins as well.
• Vacuoles. They function in the storage and transport of waste, such as the by-products of the Golgi complex.
• The nuclear membrane. It encloses the cell’s nucleus and is continuous with the outer membrane of the RER. This is because the RER is located very close to the nucleus.
• Lysosomes. These contain digestive enzymes that break down excess cell parts.
• Golgi complex. This organelle is known for packaging the protein and lipid molecules made by the ER for transport inside and outside the cell.
• Vesicles. They are small cellular containers that assist with transporting the materials the cell needs to survive.

Cells are the building blocks of all living things. The average human being has a range of 28 – 36 trillion cells in their body, with each one constantly at work to fulfill a goal for the body. Each one of these cells has a working RER and SER.

The organelles in each membrane all serve a purpose, especially the ones in the endomembrane system. These distinct functions, including cell organization and productivity, allow every living cell to operate at its full potential.

Fun fact: Both animal and plant cells contain an endoplasmic reticulum, but it is noticeably absent in prokaryotic cells. This is because prokaryotic cells are simple structures and don’t contain membrane-bound organelles. The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane-bound organelle.

Why is the endoplasmic reticulum important for survival?

Without the endoplasmic reticulum, a cell cannot survive. All of its processes ensure that the cell’s life is maintained and kept stable. It is an incredibly detailed process that needs to be followed to keep a secure working flow.

The protein synthesized by ribosomes is incredibly versatile. It is used for structural cell support, replicating and transcribing DNA, and is also necessary for cell division to occur. Protein molecules are very complex and can do many different tasks.

It is involved in homeostasis, which is the maintenance of a stable environment in cells. Maintaining this state is crucial to allow for a cell’s growth, structural integrity, and overall proper function.

Another key process it hosts is protein folding. This is mainly done in the RER when a newly formed protein chain is folded into a three-dimensional structure.

To put it simply, proteins are first synthesized as amino acids. This eventually develops and folds into a proper structure. Proper folding will allow the protein to perform its necessary functions, but improper folding can lead to cell malfunction and death.

Lastly, the endoplasmic reticulum is heavily involved in the overall maintenance of the cell membrane. The cell membrane’s purpose is the protection of the cell. Without the SER, there would be no lipids to help cells maintain and repair their membranes.

Every organelle is involved in incredibly intricate processes that are only possible with the presence of the endoplasmic reticulum. Without it maintaining homeostasis in the cell, cell death is highly likely to occur.

What are the key functions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?

The key function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the protein synthesis done by its ribosomes. That is what it is known for.

Protein Synthesis and Folding

The beginning of the process starts in the nucleus, the control center of the cell. Here, transcription is the first part of the process.

A part of the DNA in the nucleus is used to make a messenger RNA (also known as mRNA, used as a template for protein production) molecule. This molecule carries instructions for the protein production outside the nucleus into the cytoplasm.

The ribosomes start the process of translation by using the mRNA to assemble amino acids into protein. The last step before a protein is completed is folding, when the coil turns into a fully functional three-dimensional protein molecule.

Protein misfolding is a highly dangerous event that can lead to serious issues for the cell. It is believed to be the cause of a variety of different degenerative diseases. Some examples include Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and cystic fibrosis.

To prevent this, chaperones for proteins exist. These are specialized proteins that bind to unfolded ones to stabilize and guide them through a proper folding process.

The rough ER is essentially a site of quality control that creates protein and ensures no defective ones pass on to the next location. It allows the entire process to move smoothly.

What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

Despite having no ribosomes, the function of the SER is no less important than the RER. It plays a very different role.

Lipid Synthesis and Detoxification

Lipid synthesis is a key operation of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Lipids do many things, including keeping the cellular membrane properly maintained. It does this through phospholipids.

The production of phospholipids is one of the most necessary tasks of the SER. Phospholipids make up the lipid bilayer surrounding cells and organelles. It allows the membrane to be semi-permeable and choose what is able to enter the cell and what isn’t.

The SER is also involved in the production of cholesterol, another important part of cell membranes that aids in steroid hormone production. Examples of steroid hormones in the human body include the ones like testosterone, cortisol, and estrogen. The production of these is also commonly associated with the adrenal glands, which are small glands that produce hormones that help with different body functions.

Aside from lipid synthesis, the smooth ER is highly valued for its detoxification properties. It plays a large part in converting chemicals into safer, more water-soluble products.

In the liver, there is an abundance of smooth ER because it requires quite a bit of detoxification. It is necessary to clean the natural byproducts of metabolism but also for detoxifying the effects of alcoholic drinking on the human liver.

When in need of extra support, it is capable of growing and increasing its surface area to better help with the clean-up. After it has finished, it will shrink once again to its normal size.

In skeletal muscle cells, the smooth ER is considered special and is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. It is a necessary storage site for calcium ions. Aside from allowing muscle contraction, the calcium content in the endoplasmic reticulum allows a good environment for the process of protein folding.

How do the smooth and rough ER work together?

Though they look very different and have distinct functions, both the smooth and rough ER are sub-components of one organelle. They work together to perform similar tasks for the cell.

For the cell to use the proteins and lipids that it produces, transportation must occur. The SER and RER are located very close to each other. This allows for a seamless transfer of vesicles containing the synthesized molecules.

They both send these molecules to the Golgi apparatus, where they are sorted even more before they reach their specific destinations. With the work the smooth and rough ER do to the molecules they synthesize, the job is easier on the Golgi apparatus and the process becomes smoother.

Their functions are still complementary despite their differences. Together, they allow the cell’s organelles to have structural integrity as well as the machinery they need for their roles.

Who discovered the endoplasmic reticulum?

In 1945, Keith Porter, Albert Claude, and Ernest Fullam were able to see the endoplasmic reticulum for the first time through an electron microscope. This was groundbreaking and new because of advanced imaging techniques that had been recently developed.

Many years later, Porter used the words “endoplasmic” and “reticulum” to describe the organelle they had seen. “Endoplasmic” refers to its position within the cell, while “reticulum” is a Latin word for “network.” It was an appropriate description for the appearance of the organelle under the microscope.

One of the biggest discoveries was made by George E. Palade. This man, who worked at Rockefeller institute, discovered the process of protein synthesis. He showed that proteins were made on the ribosomes attached to the RER and explained how they were transported to their respective destinations.

The next great discovery was the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR), a stress response mechanism in the ER. This mechanism helps maintain homeostasis in the cell by identifying misfolded proteins. It attempts to regain normal function by eliminating and slowing the accumulation of these proteins.

Over the years, technology has improved massively and people have made more discoveries on the ER. Studying its roles and effects inside and outside the cell allow for a clearer understanding of the cell as a whole.

Conclusion

The endoplasmic reticulum, with its two sub-components, can be used to further understand a variety of other different cellular processes. It has many different functions and other processes it plays a big part in. From dealing with the synthesis of different molecules to waste cleanup in the cell, the significance of this organelle should not be underestimated.

Gaining a thorough understanding of each and every part of the cell is a vital foundation that will pave the way to a mastery of anatomy & physiology. Each part has a highly specific purpose and goal to contribute to the life of the cell as a whole.

References

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Written by Alexa Mae C. Niez

Edited and Reviewed by Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Ever wonder what you are made of? What components underlie your body? Well, you’re in luck, as we will tackle these topics, specifically Cells. As stated in the cell theory, these are present all over your body as this is an essential functional unit of all living organisms.

Cells are microscopic, surrounded by a membrane which encloses the cytoplasm within. As we go through this article, we will learn more about these tiny units that comprise your whole being.

Molecularly speaking, cells are made up of carbon-containing (organic) molecules, inorganic ions, and water. Structurally, it is divided into three parts–cellular membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. These can be unicellular or multicellular.

Molecular Components

Organic Molecules

Cells are made from the same significant classes of organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. These are unique components of the cells. Additionally, its structure and function can be understood by these materials.

Carbohydrates

These are the cells’ significant nutrients, including simple sugars and polysaccharides. This undergoes a process of breaking down that contributes to cellular respiration.

• Simple sugars – Also known as monosaccharides, they comprise single sugar molecules. These can join together to form oligosaccharides (few conjoint sugars) or polysaccharides through dehydration reactions.
• Common simple sugars are glucose, galactose, and fructose.
• Polysaccharides – Composed of many bonded sugar molecules. Also, the majority of the natural carbohydrates take this form. The connection between molecules can be separated through the hydrolysis reaction.
• Common polysaccharides are glycogen and starch.

Lipids

Contributes to energy storage, the formation of cellular membranes, and cell signaling. Its simplest form is the fatty acids, which comprise a carboxyl group at the end of lengthy hydrocarbon chains, usually up to 16-18 carbon atoms.

• Unsaturated Fatty Acids – Double bonds are present between carbon atoms.
• Saturated Fatty Acids – All carbon atoms bond with the maximum quantity of hydrogen atoms.

Since this has one nonpolar hydrocarbon bond, its hydrophobic characteristics enable it to be the main component for creating cellular membranes.

• Phospholipids – The main component of cell membranes is a combination of two fatty acids connected to a polar head. This has a hydrophobic tail containing two hydrocarbon chains and hydrophilic heads.
• Other common lipids are triglycerides and cholesterol.

Nucleic acids

They comprise nucleotides, building blocks that play a significant role in cell processes. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, the cell’s main informational molecules.

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – Located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, it has a unique role as its genetic material.
• Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) – Produces proteins using amino acids and is responsible for numerous cellular activities. It has different types that have different purposes.
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA) – Helps in carrying information from the DNA to the ribosomes, hence its name.
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA) – This has a cloverleaf structure and consists of molecules that translate the mRNA into proteins.
  • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – Forms the ribosomes, essential for protein synthesis.

Proteins

It comprises amino acids, which are its building blocks. Derived from the Greek word proteios, which means “of the first rank,” it is the most crucial molecule in biological chemistry.

There are three types of amino acids: (Humans only use 20)

• Non-essential (5) – Can be obtained from food or in the body.Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartic acid, and Glutamic acid.

• Conditionally Essential (6) – Healthy bodies can be created under normal physiologic conditions. Critical for cases such as starvation or inborn errors of Metabolism.
  • Arginine, Cysteine, Glutamine, Glycine, Proline, and Tyrosine.

• Essential (9) – Cannot be generated from the body. These are from dietary proteins that make important molecules and specific hormones.
  • Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, and Valine.

Proteins execute tasks using information carried by genetic material. These are diverse and different proteins with several functions in each cell containing them.

Also, it serves as the structural component of cells and tissues, stores and transports small molecules, transmits information between cells, and defends against infections.

Its integral property is that it can act as an enzyme to catalyze almost all chemical reactions.

• There are four levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
• Primary – Amino acid sequence in polypeptide chains.
• Secondary – Regular assembly of amino acids in regions of polypeptides. Commonly, these can be α helix and β sheet.
• Tertiary – Folding of polypeptide chains due to interactions between amino acid side chains throughout various primary sequence regions.
• Quaternary – relationships between various polypeptide chains in proteins comprising many polypeptides. An example is the hemoglobin, the protein that brings color to our blood.

Inorganic Ions

The ions that are present in the cell and comprise 1% or less of the mass include sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), and magnesium (Mg²⁺). Calcium (Ca²⁺), phosphate (HPO42-), chloride (Cl^–), and bicarbonate (HCO3-). These ions participate in cell metabolism, which plays a critical role in its function.

• Sodium is an electrolyte cation that helps maintain homeostasis through osmoregulation, blood and body fluid volume, and pH regulation.
• Potassium ions help move nutrients inside the cell and excrete waste products.
• Magnesium ions function in enzymatic reactions, transferring, storing, and using energy.
• Calcium ions regulate enzymatic activities and cellular events such as muscle contraction, secretion, and cell division.
• Phosphate ions are responsible for enzymatic reactions such as glycolysis and ammoniagenesis and help form the phospholipid layer of cell membranes, DNA, RNA, and proteins.
• Chloride ions help regulate the extracellular compartment’s water, osmotic pressure, pH, and ion balance.
• Bicarbonate ions help with the pH homeostasis and transport of ions and organic substrates through cellular membranes.

Water (H2O)

Water is the most abundant component, accounting for 70% or more of its total mass. The interaction between the H2O in the cell is significant in its interaction with the other elements, specifically in biological chemistry.

Structural Components

Cell Membrane, also known as plasma membrane, is the cell covering that separates its interior from the surrounding environment. It consists of a semipermeable lipid bilayer, essential for transporting nutrients, ions, and substances in and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm is the thick-fluid content of the plasma membrane, which mainly comprises water, salts, and proteins. This houses the organelles and is the site of many cellular processes.

Organelles are “Small Organs,” which are subcellular structures that have specific functions in the cell.

• The nucleus is found in all eukaryotic cells and is double-membraned (porous) in structure. This is the largest organelle and the information repository. Additionally, this is the cell’s control center or mainly its brain.
  • This houses the nucleolus covered by the nuclear envelope and contains the chromosomes, thread-like structures that carry genes.
• The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They help transport materials throughout the cell.
• The rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and comprises cisternae, tubules, and vesicles found all over the cell. Its rough name came from the ribosomes attached to its membrane surface.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum is the storage organelle and is the site for lipid synthesis, which also functions as the detoxifier of the cell.
• Mitochondria is known as the “powerhouse of the cell” because it produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• Plastids (Present only in plant cells) are large membrane-bound organelles that contain pigments. Depending on their pigments, there are three types of plastids: Chloroplasts, Chromoplasts, and Leucoplasts.
• Ribosomes are the site for protein synthesis and are cytoplasmic organelles found near or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
• Golgi Apparatus, or the Golgi Complex, is a flattened membrane-bound organelle with stacked pounces called cisternae. This transports, modifies, and packages proteins to specific destinations.
• The cytoskeleton is the continuous network of structures present throughout the cytoplasm. This comprises different proteins, actin, and tubulin, to provide shape and mechanical resistance.
• Cilia and Flagella are hair-like structures outside the cell. This helps in the movement of the cell.
• The centrosome is composed of centrioles, which form spindle fibers during cell division and also form the bases of the cilia and flagella.
• Vacuoles are storage bubbles filled with fluid enclosed by a membrane found in the cell. This stores food and nutrients that the cell needs.

What is a human cell?

A Human Cell is the smallest functional unit of life. It comprises the tissues, organs, the organ system, and the human organism. Each of these cells contains genetic material that can replicate itself. They provide structure, take in nutrients, and transform them into energy, enabling our body to function.

The body comprises trillions of cells, each with a different function. The following are the various types of cells:

• Stem Cells are special cells that can turn into any cell.
• Bone cells form our bones and are of at least three main types: osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and osteocytes.
• Blood Cells transport nutrients and oxygen throughout the body. There are three types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
• Female egg cells are the largest human cells essential for reproduction.
• Sperm Cells fertilize the ovum and are the smallest cells in the human body.
• Fat Cells, also known as adipocytes, are fats the body uses for energy.
• Muscle Cells, also called myocytes, are long tubular cells essential for movement, support, and internal functions.
• Nerve Cells, also known as neurons, are the body’s communication system, comprising two parts: the cell body and nerve processes–axons and dendrites.

How do cells work?

Cells metabolize food to energy and divide to produce more.

Cellular Metabolism consists of controlled biochemical reactions in a cell to maintain homeostasis. These processes are essential for organisms to grow and produce. It is divided into two processes: anabolic and catabolic.

• Anabolic Metabolism uses energy to form molecules like nucleic acids and enzymes to perform specific functions. There are three stages: production of precursors, activation into reactive forms, and assembly of precursors.
• Catabolic Metabolism is the breaking down of complex molecules. This serves as the source of energy and components to form anabolic reactions. This process is usually exothermic.

Cell Division is the formation of new cells from parent cells. The cell undergoes two types of cell division:

• Mitosis replicates one parent cell to two daughter cells, essential for growth and repair.
• Meiosis divides a parent cell into four genetically different daughter cells, which is significant in human reproduction.

Why do cells need water?

Water, the universal solvent, is essential for your body, especially your cells, to function correctly. Humans are composed of 70% water, which is a crucial component.

• It facilitates the transportation of nutrients inside the cell and the excretion of waste products outside through the osmosis process from low to high concentrations.
• Additionally, water is a small and fast molecule, so it acts as a lubricant when large-scale motions are needed to move large molecules.

Are all cells alive?

Being alive, by definition, is anything that grows, moves, reproduces, and respires are considered to be living. A cell functions the same way. As cells are the smallest fundamental life unit, all cells are considered alive.

All living organisms are made from cells, from the only unicellular organisms to the trillions of multicellular beings.

How long do cells live?

The majority of the cells eventually die, but not all. On average, cells in your body live up to 7 to 10 years. The lifespan of cells differs depending on the type of cell.

Commonly known cells’ lifespans:

• Nerve cells stay alive for the rest of a person’s life.
• Heart muscle cells live up to forty years, regenerating in limited amounts.
• White blood cells live for around two weeks.
• Red blood cells live for about four months.
• Liver Cells can live up to eighteen months.
• Epidermal Cells live up to two weeks.
• Fat Cells live around eight years.
• Egg Cells up to fifty years.

What happens when a cell dies?

Cell death happens when cells in your body stop working and die. As cells perish because of cell division, they are recycled to produce new, efficient ones. It is already established that each cell has its lifespan. Thus, natural cell death is essential for keeping your body healthy.

There are three types of cell death:

• Apoptosis happens naturally when a cell needs to self-destruct or die. This usually occurs when maximum cell division is achieved.
• Autophagy is another form of programmed cell death, which occurs when your body is experiencing stress or hunger. It reuses old cell parts to make new ones.
• Necrosis is an unexpected death due to the lack of blood flow, leading to tissue death. This also happens when people are deceased.

References

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Written by Sam Gabriel Escueta

Edited and Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Software is used to operate computers to do specific tasks. It mainly automizes people’s work to make their jobs more efficient.

They are computer programs that perform specific functions on a computer. Different kinds of it are used for various functions. Below are some examples of different kinds of software:

• Word Processing Software is used to manipulate text to create documents. These can design fonts, change text formats, and check for grammatical and spelling errors. Examples of this include Google Docs.

• Graphics Software is used to manipulate graphics in graphical documents. Examples include illustration and picture editing applications such as Adobe Photoshop and Procreate.

• Spreadsheet Software is mainly used to manipulate numerical data and do calculations. It stores data in the form of tables, having rows and columns. Examples of this include Google Sheets.

• Presentation Software is mainly used to create and present visual information. This can present texts, images, graphs, and videos. Examples of this include Google Slides and Microsoft PowerPoint.

• Web Browsers are applications used to browse the internet. It lets you watch and download images and videos and search for information. Famous examples include Internet Explorer, MS Edge, and Safari.

• Multimedia Software is used to create, edit, and sometimes present multimedia such as images, audio, and videos. Examples include VLC Media Player, MX Player, and Windows Media Player.

• Education and Reference Software, or Academic Software, facilitates learning. Examples of this include Google Earth and NASA World Wind.

• Simulation Software is used to replicate real-life situations and operations for learning purposes. This is used in military engineering, industrial training, flight systems, machinery testing, and others. An example of this is MATLAB.

How does software help people of different disciplines?

Software helps people mainly through automation. It automizes the work that people do, making it more efficient. It allows humans to do their job better with less effort.

It helps people in different ways depending on the field and discipline that they are working on. Below are some examples of how it aids people in their work:

Healthcare

Software helps healthcare patients in so many ways. One is through health information systems. Different kinds of health information systems have various functions. Below are some examples of health information systems:

• Electronic Medical Records (ECM) are systems that replace paper patient records. This collects patients’ medical information and stores it electronically. This makes data access and retrieval more efficient.

• Practice Management Software manages daily medical operations in a facility. This includes patient scheduling and medical services billing. This automates tasks to make workflow more efficient.

• Laboratory Information System (LIS) processes, stores, and manages patient data from laboratory tests. This improves doctor-lab technician coordination, with technicians assisting doctors with diagnoses.

• Clinical Decision Support System aids in clinical decision-making through analyzing data. It provides assessments or recommendations based on the data it analyzed.

These systems help healthcare workers by assisting, saving time, and making their work more efficient.

Business

Software helps business owners enhance their operations, improve efficiency, and stay competitive. Below are some of its examples and how they help business owners:

• Time Tracking and Billing Software allow employees to manage their time in billing clients.

• Accounting Software makes employees’ workflow smoother and more straightforward than traditional accounting. This makes calculations faster and tracking payments easier, increasing productivity and efficiency.

• Customer Relationship Management enables accountants to be constantly updated with their clients. This encourages interaction, improving their relationships.

• Team Communication Software allows multiple employees from different places to communicate, encouraging collaboration. This reduces misunderstandings and increases their work productivity.

• Practice/Project Management Software allows employees to organize their projects and track progress. This also allows employees to map their plans, encouraging collaboration and improving productivity.

This improves business processes, making companies more efficient and pushing them to the top.

Product Engineering

Software helps product engineers design, simulate, and test products. It does this with better precision and accuracy. This reduces the costs and improves the quality of their product.

Product engineers use different kinds with various functions. Below are some examples that they use:

• Computer-aided Design (CAD) Software enables engineers to create and design models of products. This is what they commonly use.

• Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Software simulates and tests the products under various conditions. This allows engineers to optimize their designs based on different factors.

• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Software simulates fluid flow and heat transfer in products. This allows engineers to optimize their designs for efficiency and performance.

• Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) Software manages product development, from design to manufacturing.

This helps product engineers simulate and test their products before production. This also allows them to revise and optimize their designs to make them flawless and more cost-effective.

What are system software and application software?

All software examples mentioned above are under one of the two main types: System Software and Application Software. These vary in purpose and serve the user in different ways.

System software keeps the computer’s essential functions running in the background while the user uses it. It runs a computer’s hardware and manages the computer itself.

It is important to people as it enables computer systems to do various things:

• It enables communication between the software and hardware components of the system.

• It manages computer resources. This includes the memory, CPU usage, and storage, ensuring system operations run efficiently.

• It provides security such as firewalls, antivirus, and encryption. This protects the system from security threats.

• It supports the installation and running of applications on the system.

• It allows for customization of the system settings and configurations.

System software is important as it bridges the user and the computer hardware. Without it, computers won’t act appropriately. It performs memory management, storage, security, and customization tasks.

Application software, on the other hand, performs tasks and commands that its users give. It enables automation, which improves work productivity and efficiency.

It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management, inventory and payroll programs, and others. Below are examples of kinds of application software:

• It allows seamless connectivity and quick communication response.

• It helps collect, store, and manage data and documents.

• It can be used for educational purposes, such as e-learning systems.

• It can develop visuals and videos for presentations.

• It can manage accounting, finance, and other business-related work to be smooth and efficient.

• It can help in customer relationship management.

• It can manage small and large-scale projects.

In contrast, system software provides a platform for other software and hardware to run, while application software performs specific tasks for the user.

What software you use depends on your field of work and the function that you need. Most are easily accessible, but some are needed to be bought. Also, some are simpler to use and understand compared to others. So, choose them wisely.

How do you choose a good software?

When choosing software, judging it according to some standards is recommended. More importantly, it must meet your needs, perform as intended, be reliable, and be easy to maintain.

It should have specific characteristics that meet its purpose. Below are some examples of characteristics of a good software:

• Functionality. It works and behaves as intended. It meets the requirements and specifications that it was designed for.

• Usability. It is easy to use and understand, providing a positive experience.

• Reliability. It is accurate and is free of defects.

• Performance. It can handle large amounts of data or traffic and runs efficiently.

• Security. The software and Its data are safe from unauthorized access and malicious attacks.

• Maintainability. It is easy for other developers to update, understand, and modify.

• Reusability. It can be reused in other applications or projects.

• Scalability. It can handle increasing workloads and can easily extend under changing requirements.

• Testability. It can easily be validated through numerous and extensive tests.

With these characteristics, the software can perform its purpose. It can also provide the best experience and advantages.

What are the advantages of software?

The use of software, especially in a professional or group setting, provides significant benefits to its users. It provides automation, increasing work productivity, efficiency, and sustainability.

The advantages it brings vary throughout different disciplines and industries. Below are some common examples of software advantages:

• Increases accessibility. It allows multiple people from different places to access, work, and accomplish tasks together. This enables cooperation, increasing productivity and efficiency.

• Unifies communication. It enables and improves group communication.

• Increases organization. It can collect and store large amounts of data. This data can be accessible to people, enabling them to manage it easily.

• Increases engagement. It enables the presentation of different multimedia, increasing engagement in presentations and meetings.

• Improve decision-making. It can help generate, test, and evaluate ideas, assisting decision-making.

• Increase productivity. Its tools and custom workflows eliminate manual input, save time, and boost productivity.

• More reliable data. Using functional and verified applications improves data collection, storage, and management.

• Enhanced analysis. It can gather data together into one application. This enables quick and systematic analysis of multiple data, increasing analysis efficiency.

• Improved data security. By gathering data into a single application, keeping it safe and secure is much easier than managing multiple data storages. It can also provide backup in case of emergencies.

• Better customer service. It enables quick access to customer data, which is vital for maintaining good relationships. This can help you assist customers more effectively.

• Increased sales potential. Automation can help improve the execution of sale processes such as product delivery and customer service.

What is the most important software?

The operating system is the most important of all kinds of software. This program controls a computer system’s resources and memory. It manages all other application programs, including the computer’s software and hardware.

Operating systems coordinate the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and storage. This is to ensure that each program meets its needs. Below are some of its other functions:

• Assign needed hardware to programs.

• Assigns the necessary input and output devices.

• Schedules programs for execution on the processor.

• Maintains file directories and provides access to the data in the files.

• Manage data and program files.

Operating systems typically come built-in on every computer. However, it is possible to change or upgrade these systems. These systems manage everything the computer does, from when it is turned on until it is shut down.

It is responsible for the graphical user interface (GUI) you see when a computer is turned on. It displays texts and graphics and allows you to type and click icons and buttons.

The most common operating systems for personal computers are Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux. For mobile devices, the most common are Apple iOS and Google Android.

Conclusion

Overall, software works in different ways depending on how they are developed. They each have their functions, goals, and reasons to have been made. They also have various benefits and advantages depending on how they are used.

They not only improve efficiency and productivity through automation but also provide a better way of life for everyone.

With the advancement of technology, more software will continue to advance and develop, pushing our society to greater heights.

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Cifra, C. L., Custer, J. W., & Fackler, J. C. (2022). A research agenda for diagnostic excellence in critical care medicine. Critical Care Clinics, 38(1), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccc.2021.07.003

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Written by Sophia Calumpang

Edited and Reviewed by Dr. Reuben J C. Los Baños, Ph.D.

Today’s genomics produces a large amount of data. As labs face more data, new rules, and technology, they must update how they manage information.

A LIMS tool helps you organize samples and data while following rules. If manual tasks cause mistakes or delays in tracking samples, a LIMS can make it easier and more accurate.

Also, it makes it easy to keep records and create reports, which reduces mistakes and speeds up the work.

It has many essential features: It is easy to set up and can fit customer needs and change as the lab grows. It tracks a sample’s journey from when it arrives, through storage and testing, until disposal.

The system has a simple interface for users to access different sections based on roles. It also makes it easy to share data with other instruments.

LIMS is a flexible tool that provides many solutions for lab work. Its wide range of features and reliability are essential for different industries.

From manufacturing to forensics, every lab can enjoy using LIMS.

These are some of the industries that use LIMS:

Industrial Production

LIMS helps chemical, plastic, oil, and mining manufacturers improve product quality. It streamlines production, updates old processes, finds problems, and solves them.

Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology

These create new medicines and ensure your products are safe and work well. LIMS helps you make drugs better and faster so you can sell products as soon as possible.

Food Industry

Food production requires careful control. LIMS can help by regulating current processes and testing new ideas.

Environmental Protection

Many businesses, big and small, must keep up with changing air, water, and pollution rules. This can be hard. LIMS helps by offering tools that lower the risk of crossing safe limits and make it easier to follow the rules.

Criminology

Crime keeps happening, so law enforcement must act fast and use new tools. LIMS helps courts, forensic labs, and the field personnel manage resources, results, and evidence.

Diagnostics and Healthcare

Using LIMS in healthcare labs ensures:

• high-quality data;
• reliable research results, and;
• better integration of lab tools.
• LIMS helps track and manage all tasks, making work easier for lab workers.

How Does a Laboratory Information System Work?

The LIMS tracks a sample from when it enters the lab until it’s finished. This includes steps like storing, testing, reporting, and archiving.

When a sample arrives, the LIMS adds it to the system and gives it a unique ID number. As the sample moves through the lab, you can update its information in the LIMS to keep a complete record.

Below is the workflow of LIMS:

• Test Order. You request a specific test done on a sample.
• Sample Registration (Barcode). Adding a sample to the system and labeling it with a barcode for tracking.
• Sample Preparation. Make the sample ready for testing.
• Task Allocation. Assign specific jobs or tests to staff members.
• Sample Testing. Perform the actual tests on the sample.
• Result Registration. Enter the test results into the system.
• Result Validation and Approval. Checking and confirming that the results are correct.
• Certificate of Analysis (CoA). A resulting document that shows the test results and details about the sample.
• CoA Release. Sharing the Certificate of Analysis with the requester.
• Billing and Invoicing. Charging for the tests and sending a bill to the customer.

What are the components of a LIMS?

A LIMS performs these six main functions:

Sample Management

Secures and maintains detailed and accurate records of each sample. It tracks samples from the moment they enter the laboratory until you dispose of them. When you move a sample, the LIMS updates the Chain of Custody. This helps you track where the sample is and who has it.

Inventory Management

Keeps your equipment information timely and tells you when to update it.

Inventory management plays a vital role in daily lab operations. It helps you track stock supplies and reagents. It sends alerts when supplies are low.

Test Management

Gives you complete control over the testing process. It enables you to manage the tests performed on samples and allows easy results entry.

The system tracks the approval of results and facilitates report generation. It also helps you manage different test analytes and assign specific tests to users.

Reporting

It reduces the time you spend on reporting. Reporting is a crucial aspect of a LIMS that allows you to view collected data and identify trends.

It enables you to make reports, track samples, inventory status, test results, and audit.

Document Management

Keeps documents organized. Handles internal and external documents, such as standard operating procedures and consent forms.

It tracks changes, assigns documents for review, and controls access to private files.

Study Management

It assists you in managing clinical research samples associated with specific studies. It allows you to organize data related to different subject groups within a study.

It helps you work with stakeholders like sponsors and research organizations.

What type of data do LIMS store?

Different types of information stored in a LIMS:

Sample Information:

LIMS can store information about lab samples, such as the sample ID, type, and status. It helps follow the sample’s path, ensures on-time processing, and prevents data loss or damage.

It includes:

• sample ID;
• type;
• status;
• the date and time received;
• sources, and;
• Special handling instructions.

Storing this data in LIMS helps ensure fast and accurate processing.

Test Results:

It’s essential to keep the results of each test done on a sample, including test details and outcomes. This information helps analyze lab test results and make intelligent decisions.

Labs include the test date, technician’s name, and notes to maximize test data.

Storing this information in a LIMS helps lab staff track each test immediately. It keeps all data ready for analysis and reporting.

Instrument Data:

Storing data from laboratory tools is essential for accuracy and readability. Laboratory tools include analyzers, spectrometers, and microscopes.

Labs should also keep records of maintenance and calibration for each tool.

When labs store this information in a LIMS, staff can see the condition of tools and make sure they are in good shape.

User Information:

It’s essential to keep information about each user who accesses a LIMS system. This includes usernames, roles, permissions, and access levels. Many LIMS platforms also let labs store training records and test results for users.

This information helps lab staff check user skills and ensure they can do specific tasks.

It helps keep results accurate and stops unauthorized users from seeing private information.

Quality Control Data:

Laboratories need precise and current information about quality control samples, procedures, and results. This info, with records of fixes made after problems, helps reduce risks and meet rules.

With LIMS, lab workers can see how well their quality checks are doing. QCD helps them make changes to ensure lab results are correct and reliable.

What are the Benefits of a LIMS?

One benefit of a LIMS is that it gives labs one place to do many activities. This helps everyone keep important information safe in one place, making labs paperless.

• Productivity. Wasting time is costly, so labs need their technicians to work hard to get the best results. Luckily, modern labs use new tools to help workers do their jobs better and faster. A LIMS (Laboratory Information Management System) is one of these helpful tools. It makes work easier for lab technicians by giving them simple but powerful features. With LIMS, workers can get more done and focus on essential jobs instead of wasting time on tedious tasks. LIMS also speeds up critical lab processes and helps find information faster.
• Automation. LIMS helps increase productivity by automating many lab tasks. This means LIMS can handle some time-consuming tasks for lab technicians. For example, it can assign functions to researchers or show them where to find a sample. LIMS also helps technicians manage lab inventory, which can be tricky and take time. With LIMS, managing inventory and equipment becomes easier.
• Connectivity. A LIMS works well with other lab tools. It can connect to different instruments, making it easier to manage data. This helps labs keep information safe and saves time when getting data from other places.
• Cost-cutting. Going digital saves time and uses less paper. It becomes easier to find information and save money on supplies. Labs don’t need to keep as much paper, which cuts down on storage costs and trash removal fees.

Benefits of LIMS for respective lab employees:

Workflow Management

Scientists are the main winners when lab workflows become smoother. Automation takes many tasks off their plates, making their jobs easier. LIMS reduces the need for manual steps, which helps lower mistakes. By going digital, scientists can spend less time on paperwork and more time on research. LIMS also gives them clear steps to follow, which helps them make fewer mistakes.

Following reliable SOPs also makes lab managers’ jobs easier. LIMS helps manage resources better, making inventory management much less complicated and time-consuming.

Sample Management

It allows managers to track tasks and see how tools and materials connect to samples.

LIMS helps maintain product quality by speeding up releases and preventing bad recalls.

Scientific Data Management

Having backup and recovery options eliminates the need for internal data servers. Lab managers like LIMS provide safe data management and keep data accurate.

Also, LIMS removes the need for manual data entry, making things easier for lab workers. They can access data and backups.

Collaboration

LIMS lets workers share data so everyone can get the needed information immediately.

IT managers like using connected systems that help them share information.

Lab managers also enjoy easy data sharing within the lab and fast delivery of results.

Data Visualization

LIMS provides essential data that helps executives and lab managers review information.

Executives can view key performance indicators (KPIs) and business activities. Lab managers can also access lab and production data.

Examples of a Laboratory Information System

Clinical Laboratory Information Systems.

These common LISs manage patient sample data and clinical lab test results. They keep test results accurate and help get patient information for fast diagnoses.

Anatomic Pathology Laboratory Information Systems.

These systems manage data about tissue samples like biopsies in pathology labs. They help pathologists track samples, record findings, and make reports, improving accuracy.

Blood Bank Laboratory Information Systems.

These systems manage blood products and donor information, ensuring safe blood for transfusions. Features include managing donors and blood types and tracking blood use. This helps avoid mistakes and lower waste.

Molecular Laboratory Information Systems.

These LISs manage data for genetic testing and sequencing. They look at genetic data and make reports. It assists in personalized medicine with sample tracking and testing tools.

Microbiology Laboratory Information Systems.

It focuses on microbiology labs, managing data about cultures and identifying microbes. It tracks samples and automates testing, helping with infection control and patient care.

Chemistry and Hematology Laboratory Information Systems.

It manages data for blood tests, making it easier to analyze samples and create reports. Features include connecting to machines and checking quality, ensuring timely diagnoses and care.

Quality Control Laboratory Information Systems.

They check the quality of lab testing, track performance, and ensure safety standards. They manage skill tests and track machine checks, helping labs stay accurate and safe.

Research Laboratory Information Systems.

Support labs in tracking experiments and results, promoting teamwork and data sharing. Features include planning experiments and showing data, helping researchers make discoveries.

Conclusion

Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS) help labs track samples and data. They solve problems by doing things by hand, like mistakes and waiting too long. It simplifies keeping records and writing reports, making everything faster and more accurate.

LIMS are easy to set up and change as your lab grows. They follow samples from when they arrive until you get rid of them. They work well with other tools, making it easier to share information. They help businesses that make medicine and food and keep the environment safe. LIMS helps labs work better, correct the information, and finish tasks immediately.

References

CloudLIMS. (2024, July 18). What is a LIMS (Laboratory Information Management System)?: Definition, Purpose, & Benefits of LIMS. CloudLIMS. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://cloudlims.com/what-is-a-lims/

Covetus. (2021, March 2). Significance & Benefits of Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS) | Covetus Technologies Pvt Ltd. Covetus, LLC. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.covetus.com/blog/significance-benefits-of-laboratory- information-management-system-lims

IDBS. (n.d.). What is a LIMS? – Laboratory Information Management System. IDBS. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.idbs.com/what-is-a-lims/

Illumina. (n.d.). Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS) | For genomics labs. Illumina. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.illumina.com/informatics/infrastructure-pipeline-setup/lims.html

Prolis. (n.d.). Different Types of Laboratory Information Systems | Prolis. Prolis LIS. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.prolisphere.com/different- types-of-laboratory-information-systems/

Uncountable. (2023, April 5). 5 Types of Information That Should Be Stored in a LIMS Platform. Uncountable. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://www.uncountable.com/resources/5-types-of-information-that-should- be-stored-in-a-laboratory-information-management-system-lims